中国东部云-降水对应关系的分析与模式评估

为评估和改进模式中不同类型云与降水的对应关系,利用1998—2007年卫星-台站融合降水资料和国际卫星云气候计划的卫星观测云资料,采用诊断方法分析了中国东部季风区冬季层云、夏季对流云、层云与降水的水平分布及季节变化对应关系,并评估了BCC_AGCM模式的T42和T106分辨率版本对云-降水对应关系的模拟能力。观测资料分析结果表明,中国东部冬季云带和雨带都稳定少动,降水主要来自雨层云和高层云,南部沿海层云和层积云也对降水有贡献;夏季,中国东部表现为层积混合云降水特征,对流云带与降水带具有较好的对应关系,并具有一致的移动特征。对流降水主要来自深对流云和卷层云,深对流云云量和降水中心完全吻合,卷层云云带则表现出比深对流云主体和降水带偏北的现象;层云降水主要来自高层云和层积云。模式评估结果表明,中、低分辨率版本的BCC_AGCM模式均模拟出了冬季层云和稳定少动的降水带、夏季深对流云、卷层云和降水带的对应关系及随季风推进的移动特征。与T42模式版本相比,T106模式版本在夏季对流云云量的模拟及其与降水带的对应关系方面有所改善,说明改进的BCC_AGCM积云对流参数化方案与高分辨率模式网格更匹配,但冬季层云云量模拟误差变大,与降水带的对应关系变差,其原因值得进一步分析研究。     

Cirrus cloud horizontal and vertical inhomogeneity effects in a GCM

Summary A set of the inhomogeneity factor for high-level clouds derived from the ISCCP D1 dataset averaged over a five-year period has been incorporated in the UCLA atmospheric GCM to investigate the effect of cirrus cloud inhomogeneity on climate simulation. The inclusion of this inhomogeneous factor improves the global mean planetary albedo by about 4% simulated from the model. It also produces changes in solar fluxes and OLRs associated with changes in cloud fields, revealing that the cloud inhomogeneity not only affects cloud albedo directly, but also modifies cloud and radiation fields. The corresponding difference in the geographic distribution of precipitation is as large as 7 mm day⁻¹. Using the climatology cloud inhomogeneity factor also produces a warmer troposphere related to changes in the cloudiness and the corresponding radiative heating, which, to some extent, corrects the cold bias in the UCLA AGCM. The region around 14 km, however, is cooler associated with increase in the reflected solar flux that leads to a warmer region above. An interactive parameterization for mean effective ice crystal size based on ice water content and temperature has also been developed and incorporated in the UCLA AGCM. The inclusion of the new parameterization produces substantial differences in the zonal mean temperature and the geographic distribution of precipitation, radiative fluxes, and cloud cover with respect to the control run. The vertical distribution of ice crystal size appears to be an important factor controlling the radiative heating rate and the consequence of circulation patterns, and hence must be included in the cloud-radiation parameterization in climate models to account for realistic cloud processes in the atmosphere.     

低层对流嵌入到高层云系的模拟研究

嵌有对流的层状云系兼有两种云的特征并且降水效率较高, 具有重要的研究意义。本文结合观测资料, 利用中尺度数值模式WRF(Weather Research and Forecast)模拟了2010年7月1日发生在东北地区的一次大范围强降水天气过程, 并对其中两个较典型的嵌入对流个例进行了详细分析。分析发现这两个嵌入对流都是由低层对流嵌入到高层云系所形成, 其中由对流云和位于其正上方的层云所形成的嵌入对流发展更加旺盛并给地面带来更强降水。以这两个个例为基础, 通过其与模拟区域内的普通对流云和层云相比较发现:相对于孤立对流云, 嵌入对流内的对流云生命期更长、低层水汽辐合更强、云内液水含量更大, 不稳定能量更多集中在低层;而在液水含量相当的两个嵌入对流中固态水含量的不同对降水强度影响较大;另一方面, 在嵌入对流发展的过程中嵌入对流内层云的垂直尺度扩大、含水量增加、降水强度增强, 从降水机制来看其云内固态和液态水含量都随嵌入对流发展逐渐增大, 而单纯层云内的上述变化均不明显。     

低压倒槽影响下积层混合云形成过程模拟研究

利用多普勒雷达资料和中尺度天气预报模式wRF（Weather Research and Forecasting）模拟结果,对2009年5月9—10日发生在太原及其周边地区的一次积层混合云降水形成过程进行分析。结果表明,在积层混合云的形成初期,局地对流云得到发展,随着其强度不断增强,与周围云发生并合过程（包括局地单体对流的并合、积云团的并合和积层混合云内强中心的并合）,形成范围较大的积层混合云云系。局地单体对流和积云团的并合可带来云体的爆发性增长,霰含量、雨水含量大幅增加。积层混合云内强中心的并合对降水强度影响不大,但有利于降水面积扩大。低压倒槽和弱冷锋是此次积层混合云形成和维持的主要影响因素。低压倒槽有利于低层大范围不稳定能量的积累,风向切变有利于近距离云团的发展和并合,山地动力和热力作用有利于局地对流单体、积层混合云内强中心的形成和加强。     

东北地区嵌入对流过程的数值模拟分析

利用常规气象观测资料、NCEP FNL再分析资料以及中尺度WRF模式的数值模拟结果,对2010年7月1日发生在辽宁地区的一次嵌入对流云的形成、演变过程进行了分析,并对云中微物理特征进行了诊断。结果表明:WRF模式较理想地模拟出了此次对流过程。嵌入对流云是在大气上层分布有成片的层状云,低层有零星的对流泡生成的情况下,随着低层对流泡的不断发展壮大,当其伸展至层云的高度时镶嵌其中而成;嵌入的对流体在随层状云东移的过程中反复进行着并合、分裂过程,而且分裂过程中出现明显的右移性对流体的选择性加强;云系中不仅存在云水直接转化为雨水的暖云降水机制,也存在有播撒—供应的冷云降水机制,且成熟阶段冷、暖云降水机制均较为活跃;物理量场上,低层辐合高层辐散的强度在发展阶段最强,最有利云系的发展。     

新疆准噶尔盆地冬季系统性降水研究Ⅱ．理论探讨

根据对北疆盆地冬季冷锋降水个例的观测分析，建立一个二维动力场给定、微物理时变的冷云模式。模式考虑了云水、云冰、雪、霰和水汽五种水元间16个微物理过程。本文用其研究了无扰动层状云、发生泡区和高空引晶自然播撒作用于层状云和飞机播撒层状云的降水发展过程，并用一维模式作一些模拟补充。模拟表明，无扰动层状云内液水丰富、冰粒子少，降水不充分。高空引晶自然播撒能大大加强层状云降水。低层发生泡既产生更多的云水又提供大量冰晶，对增加降水有双重作用。模拟得出各个过程中不同部位的各微物理过程相对重要性的时间演变，清楚地解释了观测发现的一些主要降水特征。对层状云飞机播撒同样能加强降水形成，播撒后主要增水区约10公里宽且有最大剂量限制。泡区人工播撒可进一步增加降水，而在自然播撒区再作人工播撒效果不好。     

层状云的雨滴谱分档数值模拟研究

通过建立雨滴分档模式,结合部分观测资料,对中国北方常见的三类典型层状云系:强锋面抬升层状云系、气旋尺度辐合层状云系及弱锋面抬升层状云系的云中水成物总比含水量、降水强度及地面雨滴谱进行了数值模拟,并与观测值进行了比较分析。结果表明,雨滴分档模式较一般使用的单参数Marshall-Palmer（M-P）分布的参数化模式更能反映雨滴的自然演变特征。     

AGCM中云的不均匀性作用的初步研究

利用ISCCP的云不均匀性资料,探讨了云不均匀性在AGCM中的作用,分别考查了不均匀云光学厚度的贡献、单次散射反照率和不对称因子的贡献,以及3个因子的总贡献.研究表明,考虑云不均匀性效应后,AGCM模拟的气候场有着较为明显的变化.由于不均匀云光学厚度对短波辐射场的贡献与不均匀云单次散射反照率和不对称因子这两个因子对短波辐射场的作用基本上是相反的,从而造成同时考虑3个因子作用时,云的不均匀性效应对辐射场的直接作用很小,但可通过云水场的改变来间接影响辐射场.研究清楚地显示了云-辐射相互作用的复杂性,云的全面正确处理对模式模拟能力的提高非常重要.       

Vertical Structures of Convective and Stratiform Clouds in Boreal Summer over the Tibetan Plateau and Its Neighboring Regions

Cloud is essential in the atmosphere, condensing water vapor and generating strong convective or large-scale persistent precipitation. In this work, the relationships between cloud vertical macro- or microphysical properties, radiative heating rate, and precipitation for convective and stratiform clouds in boreal summer over the Tibetan Plateau (TP) are analyzed and compared with its neighboring land and tropical oceans based on CloudSat/CALIPSO satellite measurements and TRMM precipitation data. The precipitation intensity caused by convective clouds is twofold stronger than that by stratiform clouds. The vertical macrophysics of both cloud types show similar features over the TP, with the region weakening the precipitation intensity and compressing the cloud vertical expansion and variation in cloud top height, but having an uplift effect on the average cloud top height. The vertical microphysics of both cloud types under conditions of no rain over the TP are characterized by lower-level ice water, ice particles with a relatively larger range of sizes, and a relatively lower occurrence of denser ice particles. The features are similar to other regions when precipitation enhances, but convective clouds gather denser and larger ice particles than stratiform clouds over the TP. The atmospheric shortwave (longwave) heating (cooling) rate strengthens with increased precipitation for both cloud types. The longwave cooling layer is thicker when the rainfall rate is less than 100 mm d^?1, but the net heating layer is typically compressed for the profiles of both cloud types over the TP. This study provides insights into the associations between clouds and precipitation, and an observational basis for improving the simulation of convective and stratiform clouds over the TP in climate models.     

我国云降水物理飞机观测研究进展

飞机观测是云中粒子相态、分布和转化特征的重要探测技术。我国云降水物理飞机观测开始于20世纪60年代,经过60多年的发展,在飞机平台、机载测量技术、云微物理结构和降水形成机制认识等方面均取得了长足进步。发现积层混合云中对流泡区具有更高的过冷水含量,凇附增长起重要作用,符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制,而在层云区,当云厚度较小时,过冷水含量很少,冰雪晶的凝华、聚并增长起主导作用,并不符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制,而当云厚度较大时,过冷水含量较为丰富,凝华、聚并和凇附增长起主导作用,基本符合“播撒-供给”降水形成机制;我国北方冬季降雪过程的形成机制主要是凝华-聚并机制,只有在水汽非常充足、云较厚的情况下,凇附增长过程才具有重要作用。近年虽然在人工影响天气播撒效应、数值模式云物理过程验证、卫星及雷达遥感数据检验、对流云结构观测等方面也取得了一些进展,但仍较薄弱,亟待加强。     

基于飞机真实轨迹的一次层状云催化的增雨效果及其作用机制的模拟研究

层状云降水效率通常较低,但却具有较高的云水资源开发潜力,是人工增雨作业的重要对象。随着中国南方地区生态改善、水库增蓄、抗旱等社会需求的增加,针对这些地区降水云系的人工增雨研究显得愈发重要。使用三维中尺度冷云催化模式,对2018年10月21日湖北省一次层状云飞机人工增雨作业过程进行了数值模拟研究,并将模拟结果与卫星、降水和机载云物理观测数据进行了对比。模式合理地模拟出了云和降水的主要宏、微观特征,观测和模拟结果均显示作业云区具有较好的冷云催化条件,在此基础上,按照实际作业中的飞机播撒轨迹,完整地模拟了此次催化作业过程。对数值模拟结果的分析表明:凝结冻结核化和凝华核化是碘化银催化剂的主要核化方式;90%以上碘化银粒子的局地活化比为0.01%—2%,平均活化比为0.07%—0.27%;云系降水是由冷云降水和暖云降水两种机制共同作用的结果,催化作业使两种降水机制均有增强,增雨效果明显;催化后4 h,整个评估区内的累计净增雨量为2.12×108 kg,局地增雨率为?51.1%—306.7%,区域平均增雨率为8.1%;催化作业也使部分地区出现减雨,主要是由于催化过程中的潜热释放引起过冷层动力场扰动,一部分云区的上升气流减弱,从而导致降水粒子的成长减弱,地面出现减雨;在过冷云区,碘化银核化使冰晶浓度升高,导致冰晶-雪、雪-霰的转化过程增强,雪、霰粒子总量增加,更多的雪、霰粒子从冷区落入暖区,在暖区上层产生更多的大雨滴,从而使暖区的云雨粒子碰并过程增强,最终地面降水增加,这是此次催化作业导致增雨的主要微物理链条。      

Variability of precipitation intensity: sensitivity to treatment of moist convection in an RCM and a GCM

The present study investigates the sensitivity of the frequency distribution of precipitation rates to the closure employed in the penetrative mass flux cumulus parameterization of Zhang and McFarlane in the Canadian regional climate model (CRCM) and in the Canadian Centre for Climate Modelling and Analysis third generation global atmospheric general circulation model (AGCM3). The effects of an alternative prognostic closure for mass flux cumulus parameterization in place of the original diagnostic closure are investigated. A set of experiments is performed in which changes in the frequency distribution of precipitation rates and cloud base mass-flux are examined as a function of the parameters that define each closure scheme. The relationship between the frequency distribution of precipitation and cloud base mass flux is examined and a self-consistent relation is found when the depth of convection is taken into account. Experiments performed with the prognostic closure favor relatively strong cloud base mass-flux and deep penetrative convection with relatively more intense convective precipitation. The mean of the frequency distribution of convective precipitation is larger and the heavier events become more intense. Also, experiments performed with the prognostic closure favor less frequent convective activity. However these changes in the distribution of convective component of precipitation are generally offset by opposite changes in the distribution of the resolved large-scale component of precipitation, resulting in relatively smaller changes in total precipitation. The altered partition of precipitation between convective and large-scale components is found to alter the energy balance and the thermodynamic equilibrium structure of the troposphere. The robustness found in the CRCM results regarding the sensitivity of the frequency distribution of precipitation to changes in the closure of the deep convection parameterization is investigated by performing a similar analysis of AGCM3 simulations. A remarkable similarity of AGCM3 and CRCM results is found suggesting that the closure sensitivity identified in this study is robust.     

中国东部暖季对流云与层状云的比例及与降水的对应关系

基于1985~2011年逐时地面台站观测云资料,分析了对流云和层状云及其比例关系的时空演变特征,结合逐日融合降水资料研究了对流云、层状云与季风雨带的对应关系。结果表明,中国东部暖季（5~9月）对流云发生频率平均为15.4%,层状云为30.0%。对流云与层状云发生频率的比例在广东、广西、海南省东部和贵州省大部分地区大于1,其它地区均小于1。伴随季风雨带的北进南退,层状云发生频率和云量中心均与降水中心对应,且层状云云带与季风雨带位置吻合,随时间的演变趋势也相同,说明季风雨带主要由层状降水构成,对流云发生频率和云量大值中心则位于季风雨带南侧。对流云和层状云发生频率/云量的变化在华南地区和江淮流域呈显著负相关,云的类型主要由大气稳定度决定。对流云和层状云发生频率在华北地区呈显著正相关,水汽是形成云的决定因素。就降水频率而言,华南地区层状云降水和对流云降水各占一定的比例,而江淮流域和华北地区层状云降水频率更大。     

基于飞机观测的华北积层混合云降水微物理特征的数值模拟研究

基于2009年5月1日积层混合云降水2架飞机观测数据分析,使用中尺度模式WRFV3对此次过程积云区和层云区的微物理特征和转化过程进行数值模拟比较研究。飞机观测数据分析表明,此次积层混合云中的层云区和积云区冰粒子形状和形成过程有明显差别,层云区的粒子形状组成比较复杂,包含针状、柱状和辐枝状等,而积云区主要以辐枝状粒子为主,聚并、凇附过程明显。数值模式能较好地模拟出此次积层混合云降水过程的基本特征,包括回波分布、飞行路径上降水粒子的数浓度和液态水含量等。数值模拟结果表明,云水相对丰富、上升气流强的层云区凇附过程较强,产生的雪在低层融化为雨水,为后期高层形成的雪和霰提供丰富的液态水,能发展成对流较强的积云区,存在播种—供给机制。在积云区,水成物的比例从大到小依次为雪（51.9%）、霰（31.0%）和雨水（16.0%）;雪的主要源项包括淞附增长（56.8%）和凝华增长（40.1%）,霰的主要源项包括凇附增长（46.6%）、雨水碰并雪成霰（42.6%）和凝华增长（16.1%）,雨水的主要源项是霰（77.6%）和雪（22.4%）的融化。而相对云水较少、上升气流较弱的层云区将保持层云的状态,层云区水成物的比例从大到小依次为雪（90.4%）、雨水（6.1%）、冰晶（3.5%）;高层冰晶和雪通过凝华过程增长,雪在零度层下融化为弱的降水。     

An improvement of the mass flux convection parameterization scheme and its sensitivity tests for seasonal prediction over China

A modified cumulus parameterization scheme, suitable for use in a seasonal forecast model, is presented. This parameterization scheme is an improvement of the mass flux convection scheme developed by Gregory and Rowntree (1989; 1990). This convection scheme uses a “bulk” cloud model to present an ensemble of convective clouds, and aims to represent shallow, deep, and mid-level convection. At present,this convection scheme is employed in the NCC T63L20 model (National Climate Center, China Meteorological Administration). Simulation results with this scheme have revealed some deficiencies in the scheme,although to some extent, it improves the accuracy of the simulation. In order to alleviate the deficiencies and reflect the effect of cumulus convection in the actual atmosphere, the scheme is modified and improved.The improvements include (i) the full estimation of the effects of the large-scale convergence in the lower layer upon cumulus convection, (ii) the revision of the initial convective mass flux, and (iii) the regulation of convective-scale downdrafts. A comparison of the results obtained by using the original model and the modified one shows that the improvement and modification of the original convection scheme is successful in simulating the precipitation and general circulation field, because the modified scheme provides a good simulation of the main features of seasonal precipitation in China, and an analysis of the anomaly correlation eoetfieient between the simulation and the observations confirms the improved results.     

Mechanism of high rainfall over the Indian west coast region during the monsoon season

The mechanism responsible for high rainfall over the Indian west coast region has been investigated by studying dynamical, thermodynamical and microphysical processes over the region for the monsoon season of 2009. The European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts wind and NCEP flux data have been used to study the large scale dynamical parameters. The moist adiabatic and multi-level inversion stratifications are found to exist during the high and low rainfall spells, respectively. In the moist adiabatic stratification regime, shallow and deep convective clouds are found coexisting. The Cloud Aerosol Interaction and Precipitation Enhancement EXperiment aircraft data showed cloud updraft spectrum ranging from 1 to 10 m s^?1 having modal speed 1–2.5 m s^?1. The low updrafts rates provide sufficient time required for warm rain processes to produce rainfall from shallow clouds. The low cloud liquid water is observed above the freezing level indicating efficient warm rain process. The updrafts at the high spectrum end go above freezing level to generate ice particles produced due to mixed-phase rainfall process from deep convective clouds. With aging, deep convection gets transformed into stratiform type, which has been inferred through the vertical distribution of the large scale omega and heating fields. The stratiform heating, high latent heat flux, strong wind shear in the lower and middle tropospheric levels and low level convergence support the sustenance of convection for longer time to produce high rainfall spell. The advection of warm dry air in the middle tropospheric regions inhibits the convection and produce low rainfall spell. The mechanisms producing these spells have been summarized with the block diagram.     

广西秋季层状云微物理特征分析

利用2012年11—12月在广西进行的11架次飞机云物理探测资料对层状云宏微观物理结构特征进行研究,探讨层状云降水机制。结果表明:广西层状云微物理特征与我国其他地区的存在显著差异。层状云典型的微物理垂直结构为在云下层是由凝结作用生成云滴,随上升气流发展,云滴数浓度、平均直径和液态水含量随高度逐步增加,云滴谱拓宽,谱型向大尺度的方向扩展,至云中上层增大至最大值后随高度减小。冷暖混合云结构的高层云冷云部分的冰相粒子落入暖层后对其微物理结构产生影响,主要是使云滴谱展宽,CIP云滴平均直径垂直分布变幅增大,有利于暖层中碰并过程的启动和发展。层积云微物理水平分布呈现不连续跳跃式变化特征,存在对流泡结构,对流泡内各微物理量高于泡外,云滴谱型向大尺度移动,对流泡结构是层积云形成降水的重要机制。     

Preliminary Evaluation of a Revised Zhang-McFarlane Convection Scheme Using the NCAR CCM3 GCM

l. IntroductiOnThe parameterizat1on of atmospheric convection is one of the most challenging issues inglobal climate modeling. Since convection interacts strongly with clouds and the large--scalecirculation, its representation in GCMs has a tremendous impact on the slmulation of theglobal climate and its variations. For example, in the National Center for Atmospheric Re-search (NCAR) Community Climate Model Version 2 (CCM2), excessive surface 1atent heatflux in the tropics was simulate…     

GRAPES-Meso模式浅对流云辐射效应的改进试验

在万子为等（2015）对GRAPES-Meso模式浅对流参数化改进的基础上,进一步引入了浅对流云量诊断计算,并设计旨在完善浅对流云辐射效应的浅云云量和云中水凝物的补偿方案,以改进模式低层云量偏少和浅对流云辐射效应不足的问题。通过对数值试验结果的诊断和对比分析以及与观测的比较,重点考察了浅对流云量计算与浅对流激发的协调性、浅对流云对低云补偿后所产生的辐射效应以及对模式地面要素预报的影响等,验证了改进方案的合理性与有效性。结果表明:（1）浅对流云量诊断计算合理,其云覆盖区与浅对流激发区相吻合,引入浅对流云量的计算可减小模式云量的计算偏差、使其向观测结果靠近;（2）改进方案在浅对流发生区低层0.5-4 km高度范围内,对影响模式云辐射过程的浅云云量和云中水凝物形成有效补偿,最明显的浅云补偿在1-1.5 km高度处,浅对流活跃时期浅对流过程对浅云水凝物（云水和雨水之和）的补偿量可达20%-55%;（3）云光学厚度对浅云水凝物的补偿响应合理,即水凝物的补偿引起云光学厚度增大,两者的变化特征在时空分布上十分相似,且云光学厚度之变化受云水补偿的影响比受雨水补偿的影响更明显;（4）在白天时段,浅云补偿所产生的辐射效应使模式地表太阳总辐射有所下降,缩小了与观测的偏差,进而使地表温度和地面2 m气温模拟偏差减小。改进方案在缓解模式云量偏少、地表太阳总辐射偏强和地面2 m气温偏高等方面的作用,在批量试验中得到了验证。      

积层混合云结构特征及降水机理的个例模拟研究

积层混合云是我国一种重要的降水系统, 其降水既有对流云又有层状云特征。基于积层混合云的重要性, 本文利用中尺度数值模式WRF(Weather Research and Forecasting Model), 结合三维粒子运行增长模式对2012年5月29日北京地区的一次积层混合云降过程进行了模拟研究。模拟的降水与雷达回波与实测结果基本一致。在此基础上, 重点分析了混合云系中积状云与层状云各自的微物理结构特征与降水的发生机理等。结果表明:降水过程云内存在着明显的“播种—供给”机制, 层状云中“播种—供给”机制相对简单。而对流云区中由于降水粒子可以发生上下多次的循环增长, “播种—供给”机制可在云的上下层间双向进行, 云中粒子群可以增长得更大。在积层混合云中, 在低层, 层状云中已有的水凝物粒子进入内嵌的积云块中, 而在高层水成物粒子又从积云中落到层云中, 积层混合云系充分发挥了积云和层云各自的优势, 从而降水效率较高。