Temporal and bathymetric variation of epiphyte cover and leaf biomass in a southern Posidonia oceanica (L.) meadow: the case of Mahdia coast,Tunisia

The aim of this research was to study spatial and temporal variation in epiphyte cover and leaf biomass of Posidonia oceanica in Eastern Tunisia. Sampling was conducted at four stations on the Mahdia coast during October and December 2010, and April and August 2011, which correspond respectively to autumn, winter, spring and summer in this area. Posidonia oceanica shoots were collected at two depths (5 and 10 m). Cover of macroinvertebrates and macroalgae was estimated on adult leaves. The results showed that leaf and epiphyte biomasses vary significantly according to sampling date, with the highest values recorded in August. We found a high diversity of epiphytic assemblages on the leaves of P. oceanica with clear qualitative and quantitative dominance of Rhodophyceae compared to other groups, followed by Phaeophyceae. Most epiphyte species on the leaves of P. oceanica in Eastern Tunisia are the same as those in other parts of the Mediterranean Sea. No bathymetrical variation in the epiphytic community was found in our study area, which can be explained by the high levels of water clarity in Mahdia.     

Diversity and temporal fluctuations of epiphytes and sessile invertebrates on the rhizomes Posidonia oceanica in a seagrass meadow off Tunisia

The aim of this work is to study the temporal dynamics of rhizome epiphytes and sessile animals living on the rhizomes of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica in the east of Tunisia. Surveys were conducted in October 2009, and in January, April and August 2010 on a fringing reef located in Chebba. Rhizomes were sampled by SCUBA diving at three stations. Samples were examined with a microscope to estimate the cover of macroinvertebrate and macroalgal organisms on the top 10 cm of each rhizome. Results revealed a high diversity of epiphytes on P. oceanica rhizomes with a dominance of red and brown algae, ascidians, and bryozoans. Distinct temporal changes were observed in Oued Lafrann, with a high January cover (winter period) for all groups. These winter increases can be attributed to: (i) the low phenological parameters of P. oceanica in winter that reduce the effects of shading, (ii) life cycles of the epiphytes and invertebrates, (iii) water motion and (iv) grazing.     

Harpacticoid copepod response to epiphyte load variations in Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile meadows

We conducted a field experiment to assess the response of phytal harpacticoids to nutrient‐driven increases of epiphyte load in Posidonia oceanica meadows. First, we evaluated differences in species richness, diversity and assemblage structure of phytal harpacticoids in P. oceanica meadows with differing epiphyte loads. Secondly, we conducted a field experiment where epiphyte load was increased through an in situ addition of nutrients to the water column and evaluated the responses of the harpacticoid assemblages. We predicted that there would be changes in the harpacticoid assemblages as a result of nutrient‐driven increases of epiphyte load, and that these changes would be of a larger magnitude in meadows of low epiphyte load. Our results show that the harpacticoid fauna (>500 μm) present in P. oceanica meadows in the Bay of Palma comprised taxa which are considered phytal and other less abundant ones previously described as sediment dwellers or commensal on other invertebrate species. Nutrient addition had an overall significant effect on epiphyte biomass and on harpacticoid abundance, diversity and assemblage structure, possibly as a response to the increased resources and habitat complexity provided by epiphytes. The abundance of dominant species at each location was favoured by nutrient addition and in some cases correlated with epiphytic biomass, although never strongly. This may indicate that structural complexity or diversity of the epiphytic cover might be more important than the actual epiphytic biomass for the harpacticoid species investigated. More species‐specific studies are necessary to ascertain this and clarify the relationships between harpacticoids and epiphytes in seagrass meadows. To our knowledge, this is the first account of harpacticoid species associated with P. oceanica leaves and the epiphytic community they harbour in the Mediterranean Sea.     

Experimental assessment of Posidonia oceanica‐associated gastropods grazing on an early‐successional biofilm community: nutrient availability and species‐specific effects

Although grazing is considered an essential process controlling epiphyte biomass on seagrass leaves, there is still a lack of fundamental knowledge about the species‐specific consumption rates of the most common grazers in Mediterranean meadows. This study experimentally assessed the effect of Posidonia oceanica‐associated gastropod grazing on early successional biofilm and the species‐specific relationship between biofilm consumption rates and biofilm biomass. Two biofilms on artificial substrata, both developed in situ (in a P. oceanica meadow), one under ambient conditions and the other under nutrient‐enriched conditions, were offered in aquaria assays to nine species of grazers found in P. oceanica meadows. Biofilm consumption rates and their association with biofilm biomass were assessed. It was found that: (i) there was a positive association between biofilm consumption and biofilm biomass up to 20 mg Chl a·m^?2 for Bittium reticulatum, Gibbula ardens, Jujubinus exasperatus and Tricolia pullus; (ii) Alvania montagui, B. reticulatum and Jujubinus striatus showed the highest consumption rates and are thus expected to be amongst the leading consumers in early‐successional epiphytic communities; (iii) there was not an increase of consumption rate when a substratum colonized under nutrient‐enriched conditions was offered to any of the nine studied species. This study provides species‐specific consumption rates knowledge that is useful for the assessment of the strength of grazer–epiphyte interactions and trophic fluxes in P. oceanica meadows.     

Low biomass of macrobenthic fauna at a tropical mudflat: An effect of latitude?

The macrobenthic animal biomass of the intertidal area of the Sembilang peninsula of South Sumatra, Indonesia, has been studied in 2004. Each month (March–August) 21 core samples were taken at each of six sampling stations. Macrobenthic fauna were identified at the lowest taxonomical level possible and counted. Biomass was measured as ash-free dry mass (afdm). The average biomass over all stations and months was 3.62 g afdm m⁻², the highest biomass (47.45 g afdm m⁻²) found at a station in one month was due to abundant occurrence of the bivalve Anadara granosa. Low biomass of macrobenthic fauna at Sembilang peninsula cannot easily be explained but is in line with low biomasses found elsewhere in the tropics. For that reason we analyzed a data set of 268 soft-bottom intertidal biomasses collected world-wide to look for a relationship with latitude. It was shown that average biomass of intertidal macrobenthic fauna in the tropics was significantly (p < 0.05) lower than that at non-tropical sites. A significant second-order relationship between biomass of macrobenthic fauna and latitude was established.     

Temporal and spatial zonation of macroepiphytes on Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile leaves in a meadow off Tunisia

The aim of this survey was to study the cover and the composition of macroepiphytic species on the leaves of Posidonia oceanica in the east of Tunisia. Surveys were conducted in December 2009 (winter period), March (spring period) and August 2010 (summer period) in a fringing reef located in Chebba. At each sampling date, 15 adult leaves were randomly collected and divided into basal and apical parts. The inner face of each part was examined with ocular glasses and microscope to estimate species cover by orthogonal projection. PERMANOVA and ANOSIM were used to test for differences of cover between sampling dates and leaf parts. SIMPER, cluster analysis, and PCA were used to ordinate species assemblages. Comparison of epiphytic cover along leaf blades showed significant differences for all groups, except cyanophycea, with high cover of hydrozoans and bryozoans in the basal part and high cover of algae in the apical part. The species composition and cover also vary with sampling date; minimum values were detected in December and the epiphytic community was composed of a few pioneer species, whereas maximum epiphytic cover values were registered in August, with the epiphytic community being composed of a more mature and more diverse community, termed ‘climax’. The main regulatory factors for this distribution are discussed.     

Life after death: shallow‐water Mediterranean invertebrate communities associated with mammal bones

Invertebrate and microbial marine communities associated with mammal bones are interesting and poorly understood habitats, mainly known from studies on deep‐water whale remains. In order to characterize these communities in the shallow‐water Mediterranean, we present here the results of a pioneering experiment using mammal bones. Minke whale, pig and cow bones were experimentally deployed on three different background communities: rocky substrate, soft‐bottom and a Posidonia oceanica meadow. Bones were deployed for a year at about 20 m depth and collected every 3 months, and the invertebrate fauna colonizing the bones was identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level. As expected, mammal bones showed remarkable differences when compared with background communities. Within bones, four different clusters could be identified, primarily on the basis of the polychaete fauna, the most abundant and diverse group in the survey. Clusters A1–A3 corresponded to high to moderately altered successional stages composed by a fauna closer to that of anthropogenically enriched shallow‐water environments. These clusters were characterized by the occurrence of the opportunist polychaetes Ophryotrocha puerilis, Neanthes caudata (Cluster A1), Protodorvillea kefersteini (Cluster A2) and Ophryotrocha alborana (Cluster A3). Cluster B was characterized by the presence of the polychaete Oxydromus pallidus together with typical invertebrate background fauna, which suggests that this community, after a year of deployment, was closer to that found in natural conditions. As opposed to similar shallow‐water studies in other geographic areas, no occurrence of the polychaete Osedax (commonly known as bone‐eating worms) was reported from our experiments. Apart from the study on the invertebrate communities, insights about the population dynamics of three of the most abundant species (O. puerilis, O. alborana, N. caudata) are given as well as remarks on a hypothetical trophic network based on fecal pellet analysis.     

Temporal and depth distribution of microepiphytes on Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile leaves in a meadow off Tunisia

A survey on the epiphytic microorganisms growing on Posidonia oceanica leaves was conducted along a depth transect along the coast of Eastern Tunisia (Mahdia). Samples were collected by SCUBA diving at depths of 3, 5, 10 and 12 m in July 2008 and January 2009. A total of 58 microepiphyte taxa were identified. Multivariate analyses revealed temporal and spatial variation of the abundance of epiphytic microalgae. Water motion, light availability, temperature and motility of species seem to be responsible of temporal and bathymetric variations of epiphytic microalgae. Unlike diatoms, dinoflagellates were more abundant in deep waters, suggesting that they are more vulnerable to hydrodynamics. The significant correlation between leaf area index and abundance of epiphytic species indicates that the phenological parameters of the host plant influence the abundance of the epiphytic microorganisms. Among the epiphytic dinoflagellates, our data showed a great number of potentially toxic species (Alexandrium minitum, Amphidinium carterae, Karenia selliformis, Coolia monatis, Karlodinium veneficum, Ostreopsis siamensis, Prorocentrum concavum, Prorocentrum minimum, Prorocentrum rathymum and Prorocentrum lima). These species were more abundant in the deep station under more sheltered conditions than found at inshore shallower stations, which are subjected to high water motion.     

Influence of wave climate on architecture and landscape characteristics of Posidonia oceanica meadows

Seagrass meadow characteristics, including distribution, shape, size and within‐meadow architectural features, may be influenced by various physical factors, including hydrodynamic forces. However, such influences have hardly been assessed for meadows of the ecologically important and endemic Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica. The distribution of P. oceanica meadows at five sites in the Maltese Islands was mapped to a depth of c. 15 m using a combination of aerial photography and SCUBA diving surveys. Estimates of wind‐generated wave energy and energy attenuated by depth were computed using the hydrodynamic model WEMo (Wave Exposure Model). Metrics for P. oceanica landscape features were calculated using FRAGSTATS for replicate 2500 m² subsamples taken from the seagrass habitat maps in order to explore the influence of wave dynamics at the landscape scale. Data on within‐meadow architectural attributes were collected from five sites and analysed for relationships with wave energy. The results indicate that landscape and architectural features of P. oceanica meadows located within the 6–11 m depth range are significantly influenced by wave climate. Posidonia oceanica meadows tend to be patchier and have low overall cover, more complex patch shapes and reduced within‐patch architectural complexity along a wave exposure gradient from low to high energy. The findings from the present study provide new insight into the influence of hydrodynamic factors on the natural dynamism of P. oceanica meadow landscape and architecture, which has implications for the conservation and management of the habitat.     

Response of Nereis diversicolor (Polychaeta, Nereidae) populations to reduced wastewater discharge in the polluted estuary of Oued Souss, Bay of Agadir, Morocco

Field investigations on the population dynamics of Nereis diversicolor were carried out from January 2002 to December 2003 in the estuary of Oued Souss (southwestern Morocco) to determine the changes caused by setting up of a domestic and industrial wastewater purification plant (M'zar) before and after by the end of wastewater discharges in November 2002 on the structure of the ecosystem. Samples of N. diversicolor were collected monthly in the intertidal zone at low tide before (during 2002) and after (during 2003) the end of wastewater discharges.Separation of cohorts using the Algorithm EM method (McLachlan, G.J., Krishnan, T., 1997. The EM algorithm and extensions. Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics. Wiley, New York, 274 pp.) allowed determination of the growth rate (mm day⁻¹) by cohort and the annual production. The data showed significant differences between populations of Nereis diversicolor before and after the end of wastewater discharges. During the wastewater discharge period (2002), the population had a mean annual density of 1992 ind m⁻², a mean annual biomass of 75.52 g DW m⁻² and an annual secondary production of 141.3 g DW m⁻² with a P/B ratio of 1.87. After the end of discharges (2003), density, biomass and secondary production decreased significantly. The annual averages for these parameters were 740 ind m⁻², 14.16 g DW m⁻² and 23.83 g DW m⁻², respectively, with a P/B ratio of 1.68.The important decrease observed in density, biomass and secondary production of Nereis diversicolor may be attributed (a) to the environmental changes observed after the end of wastewater discharges in the estuary of Oued Souss, namely the increase of salinity and the decrease of organic matter content, and (b) to the migration of this species towards other areas.     

Population ecology of the snail Melampus bidentatus in changing salt marsh landscapes

We studied the population ecology of the snail Melampus bidentatus in relation to patch composition and landscape structure across several salt marsh systems in Connecticut, USA. These marshes have changed significantly over the past 40–50 years including loss of total area, increased areas of short Spartina alterniflora, and decreased areas and fragmentation of Spartina patens. These changes are consistent with tidal inundation patterns that indicate frequent flooding of high marsh areas. Melampus bidentatus densities were highly variable, both among different salt marsh systems and locations within specific marshes, but were generally similar among short Sp. alterniflora and Sp. patens patches within locations. Densities were lowest where the marsh was regularly inundated at high tide and only remnant Sp. patens patches remained. Almost no snails were found in bare patches. Areas that had large Sp. patens patches adjacent to short Sp. alterniflora supported the highest M. bidentatus densities. Population size‐structure varied significantly among patch types, with higher proportions of large individuals in short Sp. alterniflora and hummocked Sp. patens patches than in large and remnant Sp. patens patches. This was likely due to size‐selective predation and/or higher snail growth rates due to better food resource conditions in short Sp. alterniflora patches. Egg mass densities and the number of eggs per egg mass were highest in short Sp. alterniflora. Our results indicate that M. bidentatus is resilient to the level and patterns of salt marsh change evident at our study sites. Indeed, snail densities were significantly higher than reported in other field studies, suggesting that increased patch areas of short Sp. alterniflora and associated environmental conditions at our study sites may provide more favorable habitats than previously when marshes were dominated by extensive Sp. patens meadows. However, there may be threshold conditions that could overwhelm the ability of M. bidentatus to maintain itself within salt marsh systems where changes in hydrology, sedimentation and other factors lead to increased numbers of bare patches and ponds and loss of short Sp. alterniflora and Sp. patens. Studies of the responses of resident and transient fauna to salt marsh change are critically needed in order to better understand the implications for salt marsh ecosystem dynamics and services.     

Size‐frequency distributions of Joania cordata and Argyrotheca cuneata (Brachiopoda: Megathyrididae) from the Central Tyrrhenian Sea

Size‐frequency distributions can support reliable inferences concerning population dynamics of brachiopods, but only a few data are available so far. In this study, length and width frequency distributions of dead specimens of the Recent brachiopods Joania cordata and Argyrotheca cuneata from the Marine Protected Area ‘Secche di Tor Paterno’, Central Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy (41°35′ N, 12°20′ E), are reported in order to add new data about size‐frequency distributions of brachiopods. The studied specimens came from death assemblages in the coralligenous substrate, in the Posidonia oceanica meadows, and in the sand channels. The observed patterns vary from left‐skewed (J. cordata) to right‐skewed (A. cuneata), indicating respectively a low and high mortality of smaller individuals. Significant differences between the coralligenous substrate and the P. oceanica meadow were observed for both species, revealing a variation among different habitats. All length and width distributions are clearly polymodal, but the biological meaning of the peaks is difficult to interpret, as the two species seem to have a 2‐year life span. A biometric analysis of shell sizes revealed that length and width are the most variable parameters during the growth of the animal.     

Coastal currents adjacent to the Caeté Estuary,Pará Region,North Brazil

We examined and compared tidal currents and water column structure between a near-shore station (12 km from the coast) and an offshore station (32 km from the coast) adjacent to the Caeté River, Pará Region, Brazil. Although the coastal system of Pará is largely influenced by local tides and wind, we found substantial differences in the dominant forcing agents between stations. Water column dynamics at the near-shore station were largely affected by local tidal processes, while differences between surface and bottom layer flows also indicated the importance of gravitational circulation at this station and a substantial influence of the adjacent Caeté River discharge. In comparison, at the offshore station, water column structure was largely influenced by a semi-diurnal tidal flow, an along-coastal current flow (mainly associated with the North Brazil Current) and the dynamics of local wind flow. The near-shore station at low tide showed a high level of stratification; at high tide such stratification was reduced. In comparison, stratification was only apparent within the upper 6 m at the offshore station, the rest of the water column was relatively well-mixed. The stratification within Station 1 at low tide was a result of the bi-directional movement of water discharged from the Caeté River, with lower salinity surface water and high salinity bottom water resulting in an estuarine-like circulation environment. The spatial variability and lack of correlation in current flow and water column structure between the near-shore and offshore stations suggest that a flow field resulting from differences in local circulation, tidal variability and wind persistence separate areas. We argue that this separation may indicate that the offshore station is located in a transition region between the Caeté River waters and the local coastal area.     

Long-term effect of beach replenishment on natural recovery of shallow Posidonia oceanica meadows

The recovery capacity of shallow Posidonia oceanica meadows degraded by beach replenishment eighteen years before was assessed in two impacted meadows and compared with other two undisturbed localities. Inside each locality, we selected randomly three sites separated by 500–1000 m. At site level we study the vitality of P. oceanica meadow assessing the vegetative growth, leaf characteristics, and non-structural carbohydrates of the plants. Additionally, at locality level, silt-clay fraction, organic matter, pH and light intensity incident on the sea bottom were measured to evaluate the environmental conditions. Covering of P. oceanica was significantly lower at the impacted localities while amount of dead “matte” was higher. Leaf production of horizontal rhizomes (14.6 ± 1.11 vs 19.47 ± 1.45 leaves y⁻¹), net total rhizomes recruitment (2.33 ± 0.17 vs 4.3 ± 0.33 branches y⁻¹) and starch concentration (43.625 ± 0.67 vs 54.45 ± 0.74 mg per g of rhizome) at impacted meadows were significantly lower than controls. Leaf features, epiphytes biomass, colonization, elongation and horizontal and vertical rhizome production did not show significant differences. Sediments at impacted localities contained higher silt-clay fraction and higher organic matter load while pH was lower. Light intensity on the sea bottom measured at all localities was over the minimum light requirements estimated for P. oceanica. Our results show that the press impact produced by beach replenishment was enduring in the time slowing natural recovery by 45%. This impact may be related with changes in the sediment features.     

The rise of Laminaria ochroleuca in the Western English Channel (UK) and comparisons with its competitor and assemblage dominant Laminaria hyperborea

The distribution of species is shifting in response to recent climate change. Changes in the abundance and distributions of habitat‐forming species can have knock‐on effects on community structure, biodiversity patterns and ecological processes. We empirically examined temporal changes in the abundance of the warm‐water kelp Laminaria ochroleuca at its poleward range edge in the Western English Channel. Resurveys of historical sites indicated that the abundance of L. ochroleuca has increased significantly in recent decades. Moreover, examination of historical records suggested that L. ochroleuca has extended its distribution from sheltered coasts on to moderately wave‐exposed open coasts, where it now co‐exists and competes with the assemblage dominant Laminaria hyperborea. Proliferation of L. ochroleuca at its poleward range edge corresponds with a period of rapid warming in the Western English Channel. Preliminary comparisons between L. ochroleuca and L. hyperborea highlighted some subtle but ecologically significant differences in structure and function. In summer, the average biomass of epiphytic stipe assemblages on L. hyperborea was 86 times greater than on L. ochroleuca whereas, on average, L. ochroleuca had a greater stipe length and its blade supported 18 times as many gastropod grazers (Gibbula cineraria). Differences in summer growth rates were also recorded, with L. ochroleuca being more productive than L. hyperborea throughout July. Comprehensive seasonally replicated comparisons are needed to examine the wider implications of proliferation of L. ochroleuca at its poleward range edge, but our study suggests that local biodiversity patterns and ecological processes (e.g. timing of productivity and trophic pathways) on shallow subtidal reefs may be altered by shifts in the relative abundances of habitat‐forming kelp species.     

A Study in Ultra-Ecology: Microorganisms on the Seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) DELILE

Abstract. Microbial colonization on the leaves of a shoot of the mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) DELILE was studied using Scanning Electron Microscopy. Methods of field ecology such as transect, random plot and stratified sampling survey were applied to the microbial niveau to gain both qualitative and quantitative information on the microbial assemblage. While macro-epiphytic growth was significantly greater on the outer leaf sides, microbial colonization density was significantly higher on the inner leaf sides, both on leaf surface and epiphyte surface. Diatoms colonized the surface of incrusting algae and epiphytic animals in significantly lower numbers than the Posidonia leaf surface and were absent on erect epiphytic algae. Bacterial densities on epiphyte surfaces even exceeded values of the corresponding leaf surfaces on algal thalli near the leaf tips and on old leaves. Diatoms reach highest mean density on mature leaves and close to the leaf tips, while bacteria reach their greatest density on the oldest leaf and closer to the leaf base. Diatom density in general increases with exposure time of plant surface, while greatest bacterial density was observed at 7–10 weeks exposure. Basal leaf parts on younger leaves were dominated by rod-shaped bacteria, while distal leaf parts and old leaves were dominated by small coccoid bacteria. Surfaces of epiphytic algae were always distinctly dominated by small coccoid bacteria, and edges of thalli attracted high microbial densities. Microbial biomass (calculated from cell volumes using standard conversion factors) amounts to 2.3 g dry weight m-² in the Posidonia stand where the shoot was sampled. The observed patterns of epiphytic colonization are interpreted as the result of a complex, dynamically changing system of interactions both within the epiphytic community and between the epiphytic community, the host plant, and it's environment. A model of the organization of the epiphytic community on Posidonia leaves is presented. “Ultra-ecology” is a term introduced to denote a type of SEM research in the micro-environment which is analogous to in situ investigation in “macroscopic” ecological work.     

Temporal variability of sedimentation rates and mobile fauna inside and outside a gorgonian garden

Paramuricea clavata (Cnidaria, Octocorallia) is an important ecosystem engineer of coralligenous assemblages increasingly threatened by anthropogenic activities and climate changes. As climate warming is predicted to continue in the coming years it is important to hypothesize future scenarios. Here we tested the influence of gorgonian colonies on sedimentation rates and vagile fauna trends, comparing sediments collected by traps inside and outside a gorgonian garden, in a coralligenous community of the Western Ligurian Sea, at 32 m depth, over a period of 1 year. The results indicated that sea fans created a sort of homeostatic effect on the surrounding habitat. We found evidence that where gorgonian colonies were present, the monthly fluctuations of sediments rate were lower than outside a garden. Gorgonian colonies also influenced the distribution of the associated vagile fauna; these organisms were generally more abundant inside than outside the garden. The data collected in this work appear to confirm the role of P. clavata as an ecosystem engineer, affecting biomass and variability of the surrounding habitat at both spatial and temporal scales.     

Vertical distribution patterns of macrofauna in a subtropical near‐shore coastal area affected by urban sewage

The vertical distribution of macrobenthic fauna, heavy metals, and other physico‐chemical and biological characteristics of the sediments were studied in three sediment layers (0–7, 8–14, 15–21 cm) at seven stations in the Ubatuba region, north coast of São Paulo State, Brazil at several temporal and spatial scales. Six stations were located in the inner bay near the riverine run‐off, and one was outside the bay, distant from the riverine influence. The samples were collected four times in 1 year, on a seasonal basis. Sediments were basis comprised predominantly of very fine sand and the vertical distribution of grain size was uniform to a depth of 21 cm in all stations. Higher values of total organic matter, organic carbon, sulphur, heavy metals and phaeopigments were recorded at the inner Ubatuba Bay stations, probably due to the riverine influence. C/N ratios indicated a mixed origin of organic matter with a major contribution of terrestrial material in the inner stations. The vertical distribution of heavy metals showed a slight decline with sediment depth in the inner stations, indicating the present contribution. Most of the macrofauna was found at the surface sediment layer. Biological data showed that in the inner stations of Ubatuba Bay, which are under the influence of urban sewage and are moderately polluted, the fauna was distributed more superficially within the substrate than in St. 7, which is located in the external portion of the bay distant from sewage inputs. The environmental quality of the sites studied varied little throughout the year, at least in relation to the variables considered here. Temporal variation in the vertical distribution of benthic fauna was not evident in the four sampling surveys analysed. Only minor changes in the vertical distribution of the total fauna were detected in the seasonal scale, with the organisms located less deep within the sediment column in summer, indicating some influence of the tourism impact and/or rainy season.     

Architectural characteristics of two bed types of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica over different spatial scales

Seagrass beds occur in various morphological forms, ranging from small patches to continuous meadows. The endemic Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica forms dense and extensive stands that occur in several different morphotypes, including reticulate (seagrass interspersed with a different habitat type, such as bare sand) and continuous beds. This study, undertaken in the Maltese Islands, examined whether reticulate and continuous P. oceanica beds, located adjacent to each other and at similar depths, had different within-bed architectural characteristics. Five commonly used architectural measures (shoot density, number of leaves per shoot, mean leaf length, mean leaf width and shoot biomass) were measured from P. oceanica shoots collected from the two bed types at three different spatial scales: (1) tens of metres (‘small’ scale); (2) hundreds of metres (‘medium’ scale); and (3) kilometres (‘large’ scale). Results of 2-factor ANOVA (factor 1=bed type; factor 2=sampling locality) carried out at the three spatial scales indicated significant differences between the two bed types in shoot density (P<0.01) and leaf length (P<0.05) at the small scale, and in leaf number (P<0.05) at the large scale. Significant interactions were also apparent for shoot density (at the large scale) and for shoot biomass (at the medium scale). However, the results obtained did not indicate consistent architectural differences between the two P. oceanica bed types over the spatial scales considered. Spatial variations in within-bed architectural characteristics observed were therefore thought to be attributable mainly to the influence of local environmental factors. The findings are discussed with reference to the conservation and management of P. oceanica habitat.     

Habitat modification in tidepools by bioeroding sea urchins and implications for fine‐scale community structure

By creating novel habitats, habitat‐modifying species can alter patterns of diversity and abundance in marine communities. Many sea urchins are important habitat modifiers in tropical and temperate systems. By eroding rocky substrata, urchins can create a mosaic of urchin‐sized cavities or pits separated by exposed, often flat surfaces. These microhabitats appear to harbor distinct assemblages of species. We investigated how a temperate rocky intertidal community uses three small‐scale (<100 cm²) microhabitats created by or adjacent to populations of the purple sea urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus): pits occupied by urchins, unoccupied pits, and adjacent flat spaces. In tidepools, flat spaces harbored the highest percent cover of algae and sessile fauna, followed by empty pits and then occupied pits. The Shannon diversity and richness of these sessile taxa were significantly higher in flat spaces and empty pits than in occupied pits. The composition of these primary space holders in the microhabitats also varied. Unlike primary space holders, mobile fauna exhibited higher diversity and richness in empty pits than in flat spaces and occupied pits, although results were not significant. The protective empty pit microhabitat harbored the highest densities of most trophic functional groups. Herbivores, however, were densest in flat spaces, concordant with high algal coverage. These results suggest the habitats created by S. purpuratus in addition to its biological activities alter community structure at spatial scales finer than those typically considered for sea urchins.