北极地区地面辐射量和云辐射强迫特征

In this paper the characteristics of surface radiative fluxes and cloud-radiative forcing are reviewed with a focus on the Arctic. Three aspects are addressed, including (i) changes in radiation flux over the global surface; (ii) characteristics of surface fluxes in the Arctic; and (iii) characteristics of cloud-radiative forcing in the Arctic. The clouds not only significantly reduce the peak summer radiative heating of the surface but also reduce the wintertime radiative cooling at the surface in　higher latitudes. The downward longwave fluxes dominates the incident radiative fluxes in the Arctic during most of the year. Incoming shortwave fluxes are negligible during late fall, winter and early spring, and even during the midsummer the incoming shortwave fluxes are only slightly greater than the downward longwave fluxes. The total net surface radiative flux is negative for most of the year and only positive during midsummer in the Arctic. The global net cloud-radiative forcing is negative, but the cloud-radiative forcing is positive in the Arctic, showing a warming effect, except for a short period in mid-summer. Positive cloud-radiative forcing in the Arctic is attributed　to the presence of snow and ice with high albedo and the absence of solar radiation during the polar night.     

Observation of the Earth's radiation budget from space

The planet's radiation budget includes practically all energy exchange between the Sun, the Earth, and space, and so is a fundamental factor of climate. The terms of this budget, observable only from space, are determined from sampled direct measurements of the solar and terrestrial radiation fields. On the contrary, however, it should be remembered that energy exchange between the Earth's surface and its atmosphere involves not only radiative but also non-radiative energy fluxes. Nevertheless, only observations from space can provide satisfactory global coverage of the different energy fluxes that determine climate at the Earth's surface, by way of indirect retrievals of radiative fluxes at the surface and at different heights in the atmosphere. We describe the methods, applied to measurements made with a variety of instruments on board different artificial satellites, that have led to our present knowledge of the Earth's radiation budget (ERB) at the “top of the atmosphere”: global annual mean values of the ERB terms, its annual cycle, its geographical structure, and its variations. We know that solar irradiance, averaged over the globe and the year, varies by only 0.1% with the solar activity cycle; we also know that planetary (Bond) albedo is close to 0.3, that the global annual mean emission of thermal infrared radiation to space is close to 240 Wm^?2, and that these terms exhibit a weak but well determined annual cycle. We also know that cloud cover plays a major role in the radiation budget, both in the “shortwave” domain (global SW “cloud radiative forcing” –50 Wm^?2) and in the “longwave” domain (+20 Wm^?2), thus a net forcing of –30 Wm^?2. Successive satellite missions give consistent results for the shape, the phase, and the amplitude of the annual cycle of the planetary radiation balance. However, the different estimates of its annual mean absolute value remain uncertain, not differing significantly from zero, although generally excessively positive. We also rapidly review the methods used to determine the surface radiation budget as well as that of the atmosphere. For the planetary (TOA) radiation budget, we examine to what extent interannual variations and interdecadal trends have been or could be detected. We conclude with a review of projects under way. We also discuss priorities for future efforts, considering in particular, on the one hand (Ringer, 1997), the need to better quantify the factors that govern climate sensitivity to modifications of the atmosphere's radiative properties, on the other hand, the importance of monitoring the evolution of the present disequilibrium situation.     

大气气溶胶辐射强迫及气候效应的研究现状

由于工业活动的影响,对流层气溶胶含量明显增加。他们通过直接吸收和反射太阳辐射以及改变其它辐射强迫因子（云、臭氧）的大小间接影响地气系统的能量收支。近年来研究表明：人类活动产生的气溶胶具有与CO₂温室气体大小相当、符号相反的辐射强迫效应。他们在全球或区域范围内削弱温室气体的变暖趋势,对气候变化造成很大的影响。文章就人为气溶胶辐射强迫及气候效应近年来的研究状况做了介绍。     

Variations in sulphate aerosols concentration during winter monsoon season for two consecutive years using a general circulation model

During the field cruises of the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) extensive measurements on the atmospheric chemical and aerosol composition are undertaken to study the long-range transport of air pollution from south and southeast Asia towards the Indian Ocean during the dry monsoon season in 1998 and 1999. The present paper discusses the temporal and spatial variations in aerosols and aerosol forcing during the winter monsoon season (January-March) for INDOEX first field phase (FFP) in 1998 and INDOEX intensive field phase (IFP) in 1999. An interactive chemistry/aerosol model (LMDZ.3.3) is used to investigate the variation in the spatial distribution of tropospheric sulphate aerosols during 1998 and 1999. The model results depict major enhancement in the sulphate aerosol concentrations, radiative forcing (RF) and optical depth over the Indian subcontinent and adjoining marine areas between INDOEX-FFP and IFP. A significant increase in transport of sulphate aerosols from the continents to the Indian Ocean region has also been simulated during the winter monsoon in 1999. The mean RF over INDOEX-FFP in 1998 is found to be ?1.2 Wm^–2 while it increased to ?1.85 Wm^–2 during INDOEX-IFP in 1999. Model results reveal a mean sulphate aerosol optical depth (AOD) of 0.08 and 0.14 over Indian subcontinent during 1998 and 1999, respectively. The model results suggest that elevated AOD downwind of source regions in India can significantly affect the regional air quality and adjoining marine environments.     

全新世亚洲季风百年-千年尺度变化的模拟研究进展

气候重建工作的深入开展极大地促进了全新世亚洲季风变化的研究,然而当前重建结果对亚洲季风的演变特征和机理存在很大争议,开展古气候模拟对理解全新世亚洲季风演变的时空特征和成因机制具有重要意义。为此,本文主要从气候模式模拟的角度回顾全新世亚洲季风百年-千年尺度变化的模拟研究工作,并将从外强迫和气候系统内部变率这两个角度对机制进行探讨。主要有以下进展:全新世瞬变模拟试验结果反映早全新世以来亚洲季风降水呈下降趋势,这主要受到地球轨道参数的影响,并通过改变海陆热力差异和半球间温度梯度来影响亚洲季风降水。在百年尺度弱季风事件上,模拟的8.2 ka BP时期的亚洲季风弱事件主要是由冰川融水触发,引起大西洋经向翻转环流AMOC减弱并通过大气遥相关导致季风降水减少;而4.2 ka BP时期模式模拟的亚洲弱季风事件主要是受内部变率所主导而并非外强迫因子影响。亚洲季风百年尺度变化的模拟研究主要集中在过去2 000年时段,中世纪气候异常期季风明显增强,而在小冰期逐渐减弱,太阳辐射和火山活动是影响其变化的主导因子,它们通过影响海陆热力差异、印—太海温变化来影响季风变化。     

Use of satellite data for radiative energy budget study of Indian summer monsoon

In this paper satellite-derived radiative energy budget such as shortwave radiative heating, longwave radiative heating and net radiation balance have been studied for the post-onset phase of summer monsoon 1979. Since clouds play an important role in determining diabatic heating field as well as being a reflection of status of the monsoon itself, the day to day evolution of clouds from TIROS-N satellite has been made. Satellite-derived radiative heating rates from surface to 100 hPa were computed for each 100 hPa thickness layer. These heating rates were then compared with the observed latitudinal distribution of total radiative heating rates over the domain of the study. From the results of our study it was found that the characteristic features such as net radiative heating rates of the order of 0.2°C/day at upper tropospheric layer (100–200 hPa) and cooling throughout the lower tropospheric layers with relatively less cooling between 500–700 hPa layer observed in a case of satellite-derived radiative energy budget agree well with the characteristic features of observational radiative energy budget over the domain of the study. Therefore, it is suggested that radiative energy budget derived from satellite observations can be used with great potential and confidence for the evolution of the complete life cycle of the monsoon over the Indian region for different years.     

Aerosol’s Impacts on the Indian Summer Monsoon and the East Asian Summer Monsoon:An Overview

India Peninsula and East Asia are high aerosol loading regions as well as major regions influenced by Asian monsoon. The changes of monsoon intensity and precipitation have great influence on economy, especially agricultural production of monsoon regions. There are many researches of impacts of aerosol on Indian monsoon, which have achieved many comprehensive progresses. Earlier researches show that atmospheric brown cloud caused negative radiative forcing and weakened the warming induced by greenhouse gases. Current researches show that absorbing aerosol enhanced the Indian monsoon and increased rainfall in pre-monsoon season, while the scattering effect of aerosol weakened the Indian summer monsoon and the East Asian summer monsoon and rainfall in monsoon season. Due to so many factors affecting the monsoon, researches of aerosol impacts on monsoon become more complex. Thus, these results remain uncertain. This paper reviews previous researches and generalizes the mechanisms of impacts of aerosols on Asian monsoon. By comparing the East Asian summer monsoon with the Indian summer monsoon, we discussed deficiencies of the prior researches, and pointed out the direction for future researches about the impact of aerosol on the Asian summer monsoon, especially on the East Asian summer monsoon.     

云量对祁连山老虎沟12号冰川表面能量平衡的影响

为探讨云量对冰川表面能量平衡（SEB）的影响,利用架设在老虎沟12号冰川（简称12号冰川）消融区（4 550 m a.s.l.）的自动气象站资料,结合能量平衡模型计算各能量分量并分析其季节变化,通过云量参数化方案获取云量因子并量化其对冰川表面能量收支的影响。结果表明：净短波辐射为冰川表面主要的能量来源（92%）,净长波辐射为主要能量支出（61%）,二者均受云量影响,但云的短波辐射效应更强（-37 W?m^-2）。云量通过影响辐射收支和湍流通量进而影响冰川表面能量收支,随云量的增加,冰川表面获得的能量减少,冰川消融速率降低。与其他区域的冰川表面能量收支对比,除地理位置、反照率、气温等因素外,海拔和云量的影响也非常显著。     

我国气候变化将比模式预期的小吗？谁驱动了亚洲季风的演化：一个瞬变模拟试验的启示

亚洲季风演化受到地球轨道参数强迫,尤其是岁差所引起日射变化的显著影响,但关于其驱动机制的争议仍然存在,且集中在“零相位”和“南半球潜热”两种假说上。两个假说都得到了部分地质证据的支持,因此亟需相应的数值模拟,尤其是长期瞬变试验的检验。长期瞬变模拟试验可以对气候的连续演变进行模拟,并能与地质证据进行对比,有助于深入认识亚洲季风系统演化的内在物理机制。但由于计算能力的匮乏,过去的古季风数值模拟多为“时间片”模拟,这使得季风变迁机理研究受到限制。文章通过一个海－气耦合模式的长期瞬变试验,讨论了轨道日射的变化特征,证明过去280ka亚洲夏季风降水对日射有十分显著的响应,且与北半球初夏日射变化相位接近,部分支持了“零相位”假说。同时,模拟结果还揭示了随意选取日射参考标尺会导致缺乏内在物理机制的位相关系,合理选择日射参考以及明确地质记录的气候学意义在古季风强迫－响应机制研究中十分重要。     

地球圈层相互作用中的深海过程和深海记录（II）：气候变化的热带驱动与碳循环

地球轨道变化驱动冰期旋回的理论是气候演变研究在20世纪的最大突破。然而以65°N太阳辐射量为准的传统轨道理论，忽视了低纬区和碳循环的作用。本项目以“西太平洋暖池”为重点，通过地质资料和气候数值模拟的结合，揭示了“西太平洋暖池”和东亚季风发育的阶段性，发现了暖池海区冰消期表层水升温超前于北半球冰盖的融化。在南沙海区发现了碳同位素有40~50万年长周期，经过全球对比和对意大利上新世地层的实测与分析，证明这是世界大洋碳储库对于地球运行轨道偏心率长周期的响应，并推测是通过浮游植物群改变有机碳在海洋碳沉积中的比例所致。研究表明热带驱动和碳循环在气候演变中重要性，其正确认识是预测气候长期演变趋势的前提。是“深海973”项目总结报道之后的续篇，对上述成果作专题讨论。     

陇中黄土高原夏季陆面辐射和热量特征研究

利用兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站(SACOL)的观测资料,分析了陇中黄土高原夏季陆面辐射和热量收支的特征.通过研究不同典型天气条件对陆面过程微气象特征的影响,发现地表反射率在晴天会出现早晨偏大的不对称结构;晴天与多云天气相比不平衡量较大,而阴天时的阵性降水会使局地能量收支出现不平衡.利用最小二乘法(OLS)线性回归得到的夏季平均不闭合度是19.6%.在半干旱区云和降水对辐射和能量收支的影响不容忽视,达到约25%的削弱程度,比极端干旱的敦煌荒漠区要大,又进一步证明了半干旱区夏季的平均气候特征与云量较多的多云天气(5≤Mean total cloud amount<8)接近.另外,7月日平均波恩比最大是4.1,平均是1.95,比极端干旱区的敦煌波恩比小1个数量级,说明榆中所处的黄土高原半干旱区比敦煌所处的极端干旱区在气候上要湿润很多.     

黄土高原35万年来冬、夏季风变化周期的差异——陆生蜗牛化石的证据

针对我国北方风积黄土广泛分布、不同地点黄土-古土壤序列可准确对比和黄土沉积剩磁稳定等特征,通过对不同地壳块体上相同层位的黄土样品沉积剩磁方向的测定,进一步探讨了应用"虚磁极法"研究鄂尔多斯块体与相邻块体的相对运动的可能性.初步的研究结果显示:该方法有可能应用于块体相对运动的定量研究,并初步得到,在第四纪时期鄂尔多斯块体相对于邻近块体作逆时针转动,自2.5Ma B.P.以来相对秦岭块体的转动约为31.5°±11.4°,自1.17Ma B.P.以来相对西宁块体的转动约为29.8°±14.7°,自0.46Ma B.P.以来相对太行山块体的转动约为8.2°±5.8°,相对于西宁块体的转动约为10.5°±6.4°.本文还根据这些块体间相对转动的角度初步估算了鄂尔多斯块体与相邻块体之间的活动断裂带不同时期的水平位移总量.     

南海晚第四纪陆源沉积:粒度组成、动力控制及反映的东亚季风演化

对南海北部MD05-2904孔、西部MD05-2901孔、南部MD05-2897孔的有孔虫氧同位素进行测定,建立了高分辨率的年代地层。对3个孔的陆源碎屑组分的粒度分布进行了测定和主成分因子分析,结果发现,南海北部陆坡（南部陆坡）的陆源碎屑沉积特征主要受单一的因子Fn（Fs）控制,它可以控制62%（59%）的粒度变化特征。与Fn密切相关的粒度组分为1.52～2.92μm和11.8～27.4μm,与Fs相关的粒度组分为<2.42μm和6.76～14.30μm。南海西部陆坡获得两个主控因子Fw1和Fw2,分别控制46%和32%的粒度变化特征,与Fw1相关的粒度组分为1.26～2.66μm和10.8～14.3μm,与Fw2相关的粒度组分为4.24～7.42μm和30.1～43.7μm。对敏感粒级的变化序列进行分析发现,北部的Fn与海平面升降作用紧密相关,呈现冰期/间冰期旋回尺度的周期性。而南部的Fs呈现高频的岁差周期波动,可能与夏季风演化引起的源区风化、河流搬运等的变化有关。南海西部的陆源沉积物主要来自南海的西南和北部两个地区,分别由东亚夏季风和冬季风驱动的洋流搬运,Fw1和Fw2恰恰代表了这两种动力控制。因此,Fw1和Fw2控制的粒度组成变化间接指示了东亚夏季风和冬季风的演化。研究认为,晚第四纪以来东亚夏季风受控于低纬区的夏季日射量的变化,呈现典型的岁差周期性,而冬季风主要受高纬冰盖变化驱动,呈冰期/间冰期旋回尺度的波动,这反映了东亚季风演化的双重驱动机制。     

我国冬季季节性积雪反照率的观测与模拟——以东北地区为例

应用了一种新的模式spectral albedo model for dirty snow,简称SAMDS,研究了不同参数对于积雪反照率的影响,结果表明：在天顶角固定为60°的条件下,新雪的粒径从50 μm增大到800 μm,使其宽波段反照率从0.92减小到0.78;相对于非球形的雪粒,球形雪粒的积雪反照率更低;吸光性颗粒物对光谱反照率的影响主要在可见光和紫外波段。此外,雪粒径的增大能使吸光性颗粒物的光吸收效应增强。结合东北地区的实测数据,我们发现SAMDS模拟的积雪宽波段反照率与实测结果较为一致。同时,SAMDS模式模拟结果表明,在东北地区,积雪中0.1~1 μg·g^-1的黑碳浓度导致积雪宽波段反照率减少2%~8%,造成的瞬时辐射强迫为9~35 W·m^-2。     

气候模式中云辐射反馈过程机理的评述

云对地气系统的辐射收支具有十分重要的作用,云辐射参数化是目前气候模式中不确定性的主要来源。云可以通过多种途径对辐射产生影响,形成不同符号、不同量值的反馈机制。研究表明,模式气候对不同的云辐射参数化方案十分敏感。预报云水含量方案的引入,改进了对云辐射过程的模拟,但与观测资料相比仍有差距。一般说来,模式中引入云水的相变和相互作用的云粒子大小产生负反馈,而光学厚度和云量产生的是正反馈。云辐射反馈的净作用其大小和符号因模式而异。云辐射与大尺度天气气候背景之间有着紧密的联系,尤其是海温对辐射平衡有显著影响。最后总结了当前云辐射研究中存在的主要问题,并提出了改进的途径。     

Transitions in the surface energy balance during the life cycle of a monsoon season

In this observational/diagnostic study, we illustrate the time history of some important parameters of the surface energy balance during the life cycle of a single monsoon season. This chronology of the surface energy balance portrays the differential equilibrium state from the preonset phase to the withdrawal phase. This includes an analysis of the time history of base variables such as soil moisture, ground temperature, cloud cover, precipitation and humidity. This is followed by an analysis of the components of the surface energy balance where we note subtle changes in the overall balances as we proceed from one epoch of the monsoon to the next. Of interest here is the transition sequence: preonset, onset, break, revival, break, revival and withdrawal during the year 2001. Computations are all illustrated for a box over central India where the coastal effects were small, data coverage was not sparse and where the semi-arid land mass changes drastically to a lush green area. This region exhibited large changes in the components of surface energy balance. The principal results pertain to what balances the difference among the incoming short wave radiation (at the earth’s surface) and the long wave radiation exhibited by the ground. That difference is balanced by a dominant sensible heat flux and the reflected short wave radiation in the preonset stage. A sudden change in the Bowen ratio going from>1 to <1 is noted soon after the onset of monsoon. Thereafter the latent heat flux from the land surface takes an important role and the sensible heat flux acquires a diminishing role. We also examine the subtle changes that occur in the components of surface energy balance between the break and the active phases. The break phases are seen to be quite different from the preonset phases. This study is aimed to illustrate the major importance of moisture and clouds in the radiative transfer computations that are central to the surface energy balance during each epoch. These sensitivities (of moisture and clouds) have major consequences for weather and climate forecasts     

The origin of giant molecular clouds

The parameters of molecular clouds formed via the Parker instability with dominant radiative losses are estimated. In this scenario, the cloud parameters (such as their mean densities and masses) should depend on galactocentric radius. This dependence is determined mainly by radial variations of the gas metallicity and the flux of heating radiation in the Galaxy. Due to the development of the interchange mode of the Parker instability, the angular momentum of the clouds will not necessarily be parallel to the galactic rotation axis.     

沙尘气溶胶与气候变化

沙尘气溶胶通过吸收和散射太阳辐射与长波辐射影响地球辐射收支和能量平衡,从而影响气候变化。另一方面,气候变化,土地利用、沙漠化和城市化等人类活动都是可能导致大气中矿物沙尘气溶胶的改变。沙尘气溶胶在全球及区域尺度气候和环境变化中起着十分重要的作用。     

末次冰盛期气候反馈特征研究

末次冰盛期(Last Glacial Maximum,简称LGM)被认为是较适合用来估算气候系统响应对辐射强迫变化的古气候区间之一.理解LGM时期气候反馈过程有助于进一步限定气候敏感度的范围.本研究利用辐射核方法和参加第三次古气候模式比较计划(Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project Phase Ⅲ,简称PMIP3)的8个耦合模式资料,对比研究了LGM时期与abrupt4xCO2(4CO2)情景下的气候反馈特征.结果表明:全球平均而言,不同情景下温度反馈、水汽反馈和反照率反馈的强度存在显著差异,然而这一关系并不存在于云反馈过程中,这可能与情景间/模式间云反馈的不确定性相联系;在不同情景下,不同反馈过程强度也存在明显空间差异.温度反馈过程的差异主要来源于LGM时期大陆冰盖强迫引起的温度变化的高度空间不均一性和海陆分布改变引起的热带对流活动的变化;水汽反馈变化可能与海陆分布变化引起的沃克环流变化以及全球降温相联系;大陆冰盖和海冰存在是导致LGM时期地表反照率反馈增加的主要原因;而云反馈的差异可能与低云云量和模式间不确定性有关.LGM时期单独强迫数值试验将有助于进一步厘清不同气候状态下气候反馈过程差异的原因.     

130年来全球气温变化的模拟

本文利用海－气耦合的能量平衡模式研究了全球平均气温的变化。在对130年来全球气温变化的模拟研究中，比较全面地考虑了各种辐射强迫因子。此外，对于厄尼诺－南方涛动对全球平均温度的贡献也做了模式估计。数值模拟的全球温度序列与观测序列的相关系数达0.884，可解释77.8％的温度变化，并反映出温度的年际和年代际变化的特征，这可能是目前国内外同类工作的最佳结果。