Lithostratigraphical correlation of the Neoproterozoic Roan Supergroup from Shaba (Zaire) and Zambia, in the central African copper-cobalt metallogenic province

New data on the lower Katangan sequences in Shaba (Zaire) and Zambia, collected during the 1989 and 1990 UNESCO-sponsored Geotraverses, reveal an important development on friction breccias throughout the Zambian Copperbelt, which still remains poorly documented, and shows that the Zairean and Zambian facies of the Roan Supergroup can be correlated in detail.As in Zaire, the deformation of Katangan terranes during the Lufilian orogeny produced important friction breccias in Zambia. Such breccias occur mostly between the upper part of the Lower Roan Supergroup and the Mwashya Group (R-4): above the shale with grit (RL3) at Konkola and Mindola, or within the Upper Roan Dolomite at Chambishi South, Muliashi and Nchanga. At Mufulira, a typical fragment of Shaba Mines Group was observed within a major heterogeneous tectonic breccia. This situation is similar to that reported at Kipapila (Kimpe) and Lubembe in Zaire, both located on the same tectonic trend as Mufulira.However, a continuous stratigraphical succession can be observed in Zambia from the basal unconformity to the Mwashya Group. Strong lithological similarities were found, formation by formation, between the Roan sequences of Zambia and Zaire. In particular, the complete Mines Group of Zaire (R-2) and the units from the RL6 to the RL4 in Zambia were deposited under comparable conditions of sedimentation and show a similar and correlatable evolution of lithologies. Furthermore, the overlying Dipeta Group (R-3) of Zaire and the RL3, RU2/RU1 of Zambia, are equally comparable. Above the Upper Roan Dolomite, Lower Mwashya dolomitic rocks, identical with the ones of Shaba, have been noted to occur in Zambia in stratigraphical continuity with the typical black shales of the Upper Mwashya. The correlation between the coarse clastics of the Zambian footwall (RL7) and the red dolomitic argillites and sandstones of the Zairean R.A.T. (Roches Argillo Talqueuses: R-1) remains uncertain. However these two sequences show some similarities suggesting a lateral facies change from high-energy siliciclastic sedimentation in Zambia, to quieter, less clastic and more carbonate rich sedimentation in Zaire.In agreement with the proposed lithostratigraphical correlation, volcanic and pyroclastic rocks, occurring both in Zaire and Zambia in the Lower Mwashya, testify to a major period of igneous activity in the region. Intrusive rocks found in the Zambian Roan Group and in the Zairean Dipeta Group can probably be attributed to the same episode of magmatism.Finally it can be shown that several copper-cobalt orebodies are found at the same lithostratigraphical position in Zambia and Zaire: the Zambian ore shale corresponds to the classical Shaba orebodies at the base of the Mines Group (R-2), the Nchanga upper orebody to the lower R-2.3 mineralization and the Zambian RL3 anomalous copper occurrences to those of the R-3.1.2 Dipeta unit.     

The Neoproterozoic Mwashya–Kansuki sedimentary rock succession in the central African Copperbelt, its Cu–Co mineralisation, and regional correlations

Rocks of the Neoproterozoic Mwashya Subgroup (former Upper Mwashya) form the uppermost sedimentary unit of the Roan Group. Based on new field and drill hole observations, the Mwashya is subdivided into three formations: (1) Kamoya, characterized by dolomitic silty shales/siltstones/sandstones and containing a regional marker (the “Conglomerate de Mwashya” bed or complex); (2) Kafubu, formed by finely bedded black carbonaceous shales; and (3) Kanzadi, marked by feldspathic sandstones. Rocks of the Mwashya Subgroup are overlain by the Sturtian age Grand Conglomérat diamictite (equivalent to the Varianto/Brazil and Chuos/Namibia diamictites), and conformably overlie rocks of the Kansuki Formation (former Lower Mwashya), a carbonate unit containing volcaniclastic beds. New geochemical data confirm the continental rift context of this magmatism, which is contemporaneous with rift-related volcanism of the Askevold Formation (Nosib Group, Namibia). A gradational lithological transition between rocks of the Kansuki and the underlying Kanwangungu Formations, and similar petrological composition of these two formations, support the hypothesis that the Kansuki is the uppermost unit of the carbonate-dominated Dipeta/Kanwangungu sequence, and does not form part of the Mwashya Subgroup. Base metal deposits, mostly hosted in rocks of the Kansuki Formation, include weakly disseminated early-stage low-grade Cu–Co mineralisation, which was reworked and enriched, or initially deposited, by metamorphic fluids associated with the Lufilian orogenic event.     

Genesis of sediment-hosted stratiform copper–cobalt deposits, central African Copperbelt

The Neoproterozoic central African Copperbelt is one of the greatest sediment-hosted stratiform Cu–Co provinces in the world, totalling 140 Mt copper and 6 Mt cobalt and including several world-class deposits (10 Mt copper). The origin of Cu–Co mineralisation in this province remains speculative, with the debate centred around syngenetic–diagenetic and hydrothermal-diagenetic hypotheses.The regional distribution of metals indicates that most of the cobalt-rich copper deposits are hosted in dolomites and dolomitic shales forming allochthonous units exposed in Congo and known as Congolese facies of the Katangan sedimentary succession (average Co:Cu = 1:13). The highest Co:Cu ratio (up to 3:1) occurs in ore deposits located along the southern structural block of the Lufilian Arc. The predominantly siliciclastic Zambian facies, exposed in Zambia and in SE Congo, forms para-autochthonous sedimentary units hosting ore deposits characterized by lower a Co:Cu ratio (average 1:57). Transitional lithofacies in Zambia (e.g. Baluba, Mindola) and in Congo (e.g. Lubembe) indicate a gradual transition in the Katangan basin during the deposition of laterally correlative clastic and carbonate sedimentary rocks exposed in Zambia and in Congo, and are marked by Co:Cu ratios in the range 1:15.The main Cu–Co orebodies occur at the base of the Mines/Musoshi Subgroup, which is characterized by evaporitic intertidal–supratidal sedimentary rocks. All additional lenticular orebodies known in the upper part of the Mines/Musoshi Subgroup are hosted in similar sedimentary rocks, suggesting highly favourable conditions for the ore genesis in particular sedimentary environments. Pre-lithification sedimentary structures affecting disseminated sulphides indicate that metals were deposited before compaction and consolidation of the host sediment.The ore parageneses indicate several generations of sulphides marking syngenetic, early diagenetic and late diagenetic processes. Sulphur isotopic data on sulphides suggest the derivation of sulphur essentially from the bacterial reduction of seawater sulphates. The mineralizing brines were generated from sea water in sabkhas or hypersaline lagoons during the deposition of the host rocks. Changes of Eh–pH and salinity probably were critical for concentrating copper–cobalt and nickel mineralisation. Compressional tectonic and related metamorphic processes and supergene enrichment have played variable roles in the remobilisation and upgrading of the primary mineralisation.There is no evidence to support models assuming that metals originated from: (1) Katangan igneous rocks and related hydrothermal processes or; (2) leaching of red beds underlying the orebodies. The metal sources are pre-Katangan continental rocks, especially the Palaeoproterozoic low-grade porphyry copper deposits known in the Bangweulu block and subsidiary Cu–Co–Ni deposits/occurrences in the Archaean rocks of the Zimbabwe craton. These two sources contain low grade ore deposits portraying the peculiar metal association (Cu, Co, Ni, U, Cr, Au, Ag, PGE) recorded in the Katangan sediment-hosted ore deposits. Metals were transported into the basin dissolved in water.The stratiform deposits of Congo and Zambia display features indicating that syngenetic and early diagenetic processes controlled the formation of the Neoproterozoic Copperbelt of central Africa.     

Revision of the stratigraphical position of the ‘Roches Argilo-Talqueuses’ (R.A.T.) in the neoproterozoic Katangan belt,south Congo

The outer sector of the Neoproterozoic Katangan Orogen of Central Africa is characterised by nappes thrust northwards, toward the foreland region, the major part of which occurs in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The rocks called R.A.T. (‘Roches Argilo-Talqueuses’) are terrigenous clastics traditionally considered as the oldest stratigraphical interval of these allochthonous units. They are correlated with the terrigenous clastic sediments at the base of the autochthonous Katangan succession in Zambia to the south, which were deposited at the opening stage of the Katangan Rift Basin. The lower interval of the R.A.T. represents red beds, whereas the upper one was deposited in anoxic conditions. Therefore, they are called red and grey R.A.T., respectively. This paper presents stratigraphic, structural and geochemical arguments against the traditional stratigraphical view and demonstrates that the R.A.T. rocks are younger than previously considered. They are interpreted here as synorogenic sediments of the Katangan foreland basin.Olistostromes with R.A.T. olistoliths, which occur either interbedded within ‘normal’ R.A.T. sediments or overlie angular unconformities, testify to pronounced tectonic movements and palæotopography of the basin in which the R.A.T. sediments were deposited. The provenance of other olistoliths implies that, contrary to the previous views, the R.A.T. olistostromes are younger than the overlying rock complexes and the contact between the two is tectonic. Clastic dykes of the incompetent R.A.T. lithologies injected into the overlying competent units suggest that the former were partly unconsolidated sediments over-ridden by the Katangan nappes. Plots of the geochemical compositions point to two distinct tectonosedimentary cycles and two types of sources, each related to a different stage of orogen evolution. The terrigenous materials of the Katangan autochthonous strata (Roan and Kundelungu Groups) and correlative allochthonous units are derived from basement granitic and metamorphic rocks eroded during the opening of the Katagan rift basin. By contrast, the R.A.T. rocks are related to the closure of the basin. Their provenance is from the orogenic source-the Katangan nappes advancing towards the foreland region in the north.The autochthonous Roan Group rocks in Zambia and their allochthonous correlatives in DRC contain one of the richest Cu-Co deposits known. In accord with the previous correlation, the CuCo mineralisation in the grey R.A.T. rocks was considered of the same age as the Zambian deposits. However, the results presented in this paper imply that the grey R.A.T. deposits represent a second generation of mineralisation in the Katangan belt, younger than the Roan Group orebodies. The R.A.T. Cu-Co mineralisation is related to the anoxic stage of the foreland basin, and the advancing nappes containing Roan-correlative orebodies acted as the sources of the metals. In conclusion, points pertaining to the revision of stratigraphical classification of the Katangan Supergroup are proposed.     

Lithostratigraphy, basin development, base metal deposits, and regional correlations of the Neoproterozoic Nguba and Kundelungu rock successions, central African Copperbelt

The Neoproterozoic Katangan Supergroup comprises a thick sedimentary rock succession subdivided into the Roan, Nguba, and Kundelungu Groups, from bottom to top. Deposition of both Nguba and Kundelungu Groups began with diamictites, the Mwale/Grand Conglomérat and Kyandamu/Petit Conglomérat Formations, respectively, correlated with the 750 Ma Sturtian and (supposedly) 620 Ma Marinoan/Varanger glacial events. The Kaponda, Kakontwe, Kipushi and Lusele Formations are interpreted as cap-carbonates overlying the diamictites. Petrographical features of the Nguba and Kundelungu siliciclastic rocks indicate a proximal facies in the northern areas and a basin open to the south. The carbonate deposits increase southward in the Nguba basin. In the southern region, the Kyandamu Formation contains clasts from the underlying rocks, indicating an exhumation and erosion of these rocks to the south of the basin. It is inferred that this formation deposited in a foreland basin, dating the inversion from extensional to compressional tectonics, and the northward thrusting. Sampwe and Biano sedimentary rocks were deposited in the northernmost foreland basin at the end of the thrusting. The Zn–Pb–Cu and Cu–Ag–Au epigenetic, hypogene deposits occurring in Nguba carbonates and Kundelungu clastic rocks probably originate from hydrothermal resetting and remobilization of pre-existing stratiform base metal mineralisations in the Roan Group.     

Geochemical characterisation, provenance, source and depositional environment of ‘Roches Argilo-Talqueuses’ (RAT) and Mines Subgroups sedimentary rocks in the Neoproterozoic Katangan Belt (Congo): Lithostratigraphic implications

The chemical characteristics of sedimentary rocks provide important clues to their provenance and depositional environments. Chemical analyses of 192 samples of Katangan sedimentary rocks from Kolwezi, Kambove–Kabolela and Luiswishi in the central African Copperbelt (Katanga, Congo) are used to constrain (1) the source and depositional environment of RAT and Mines Subgroup sedimentary rocks and (2) the geochemical relations between the rocks from these units and the debate on the lithostratigraphic position of the RAT Subgroup within the Katangan sedimentary succession. The geochemical data indicate that RAT, D. Strat., RSF and RSC are extremely poor in alkalis and very rich in MgO. SD are richer in alkalis, especially K₂O. Geochemical characteristics of RAT and Mines Subgroups sedimentary rocks indicate deposition under an evaporitic environment that evolved from oxidizing (Red RAT) to reducing (Grey RAT and Mines Subgroup) conditions. There is no chemical difference between RAT and fine-grained clastic rocks from the lower part of the Mines Subgroup. The geochemical data preclude the genetic model that RAT are syn-orogenic sedimentary rocks originating from Mines Group rocks by erosion and gravity-induced fragmentation in front of advancing nappes.     

Lithostratigraphic position and petrographic characteristics of R.A.T. (“Roches Argilo-Talqueuses”) Subgroup, Neoproterozoic Katangan Belt (Congo)

The Neoproterozoic Katangan R.A.T. (“Roches Argilo-Talqueuses”) Subgroup is a sedimentary sequence composed of red massive to irregularly bedded terrigenous-dolomitic rocks occurring at the base of the Katangan succession in Congo. Red R.A.T. is rarely exposed in a continuous section because it was affected by a major layer-parallel décollement during the Lufilian thrusting. However, in a number of thrust sheets, Red R.A.T. is in conformable sedimentary contact with Grey R.A.T which forms the base of the Mines Subgroup. Apart from the colour difference reflecting distinct depositional redox conditions, lithological, petrographical and geochemical features of Red and Grey R.A.T. are similar. A continuous sedimentary transition between these two lithological units is shown by the occurrence of variegated to yellowish R.A.T. The D. Strat. “Dolomies Stratifiées” formation of the Mines Subgroup conformably overlies the Grey R.A.T. In addition, a transitional gradation between Grey R.A.T. and D. Strat. occurs in most Cu–Co mines in Katanga and is marked by interbedding of Grey R.A.T.-type and D. Strat.-type layers or by a progressive petrographic and lithologic transition from R.A.T. to D. Strat. Thus, there is an unquestionable sedimentary transition between Grey R.A.T. and D. Strat. and between Grey R.A.T. and Red R.A.T.The R.A.T. Subgroup stratigraphically underlies the Mines Subgroup and therefore R.A.T. cannot be comprised of syn-orogenic sediments deposited upon the Kundelungu (formerly “Upper Kundelungu”) Group as suggested by Wendorff (2000). As a consequence, the Grey R.A.T. Cu–Co mineralisation definitely is part of the Mines Subgroup Lower Orebody, and does not represent a distinct generation of stratiform Cu–Co sulphide mineralisation younger than the Roan orebodies.     

Sediment-hosted Zn–Pb–Cu deposits in the Central African Copperbelt

Stratabound epigenetic sulphide Zn–Pb–Cu ore deposits of the Central African Copperbelt in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia are mostly hosted in deformed shallow marine platform carbonates and associated sedimentary rocks of the Neoproterozoic Katanga Supergroup. Economic orebodies, that also contain variable amounts of minor Cd, Co, Ge, Ag, Re, As, Mo, Ga, and V, occur mainly as irregular pipe-like bodies associated with collapse breccias and faults as well as lenticular bodies subparallel to bedding. Kipushi and Kabwe in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zambia, respectively, are the major examples of carbonate-hosted Zn–Pb–Cu mined deposits with important by-products of Ge, Cd, Ag and V in the Lufilian Arc, a major metallogenic province famous for its world-class sediment-hosted stratiform Cu–Co deposits. The carbonate-hosted deposits range in age from Neoproterozoic to early Palaeozoic (680 to 450 Ma). The formation of the relatively older Neoproterozoic deposits is probably related to early collision events during the Lufilian Orogeny, whereas the younger Palaeozoic deposits may be related to post-collisional processes of ore formation. Fluid inclusion and stable isotope data indicate that hydrothermal metal-bearing fluids evolved from formation brines during basin evolution and later tectonogenesis. Ore fluid migration occurred mainly along major thrust zones and other structural discontinuities such as karsts, breccias and faults within the Katangan cover rocks, resulting in ore deposition within favourable structures and reactive carbonates of the Katangan Supergroup.     

Basinal setting and origin of thick (1·8 km) mass‐flow dominated Grand Conglomérat diamictites,Kamoa, Democratic Republic of Congo: Resolving climate and tectonic controls during Neoproterozoic glaciations

The Kamoa sub‐basin, in the south‐eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo, is a rift basin that hosts a world‐class stratiform copper deposit at the base of a very thick (1·8 km) succession of matrix‐supported conglomerates (diamictite) (Grand Conglomérat Formation) that has been interpreted by some as the product of deposition in the aftermath of a planet‐wide glaciation. Newly available subsurface data consisting of more than 300 km of drill core throws new light on the origin of diamictite and associated facies types, and their tectonic, basinal and palaeoclimatic setting. Initiation of rifting is recorded by a lowermost subaqueous succession of fault‐related mass flow conglomerates and breccias (the ‘Poudingue’) with interdigitating coeval and succeeding sandstone turbidites (Mwashya Subgroup). Overlying diamictites of the Grand Conglomérat were deposited as subaqueous debrites produced by mixing and homogenization of antecedent breccias and gravel from the Poudingue and Mwashya sediments with basinal muds. Failure of over‐steepened basin margins and debris flow was likely to be triggered by faulting and seismic activity, and was accompanied by syn‐depositional subaqueous basaltic magmatism recorded by peperites and pillow lavas within diamictites. The thickness of diamictites reflects recurring phases of faulting, volcanism and rapid subsidence allowing continued accommodation of rapidly deposited resedimented facies well below wave base. A distal or indirect, glacial influence in the form of rare dropstones and striated clasts is evident, but tectonically‐driven mass flow destroyed any primary record of glacial climate originally present in basin margin sediments. Such basin margin settings were common during Rodinia rifting and their stratigraphy and facies record a dominant tectonic, rather than climatic, control on sedimentation. Deposition occurred on tectonic timescales inconsistent with a Snowball Earth model for Neoproterozoic diamictites involving a direct glacial contribution to deposition.     

Neoproterozoic diamictites from the Itombwe Synclinorium, Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of Congo: Palaeoclimatic significance and regional correlations

The Itombwe Synclinorium in the Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo contains a Neoproterozoic succession of greenschist facies metasedimentary rocks defined as the Itombwe Supergroup, dated between 1020 ± 50 and 575 ± 83 Ma. The Itombwe Supergroup unconformably overlies the Mesoproterozoic Kibaran belt and is subdivided into the Upper and Lower Kadubu Groups which are separated by a faulted tectonic contact. Graded, rhythmically repeated sequences of sandstones, greywackes, phyllites and shales indicate deposition as turbiditic sediment-gravity flows. Periods of basin anoxia are indicated by the presence of graphitic black shales. The Lower and Upper Kadubu Groups contain three stratigraphic levels of diamictites and lonestone-bearing iron-rich sedimentary rocks interpreted as glaciogenic strata, which broadly correlate with other Neoproterozoic glacial sequences in the Central African region and elsewhere around the world. Current stratigraphic and geochronological knowledge of these beds is insufficient to provide more accurate correlations.     

非洲中部新元古代Lufilian弧地区地质特征、成矿时代及构造演化历史

研究非洲中部新元古代Lufilian弧的地质矿产特征和构造演化历史,对深入了解前寒武纪地壳演化和成矿作用具有重要的意义。本文在系统收集Lufilian弧内地层、岩浆岩、变质、变形和成矿作用的基础上,对该带的构造演化历史进行了总结概括。研究表明:Lufilian弧基底为一条古元古代弧岩浆作用带,约880 Ma,Lufilian弧开始了早期的陆内裂谷作用,发育恩昌加花岗岩和早期基性岩浆作用,并沉积有罗安群地层。约765 Ma,裂谷作用演化至原始大洋裂谷阶段,罗安群沉积结束并开始沉积恩古巴群早期地层,在成岩期热液流体作用下形成了同沉积阶段铜钴、铀和铅锌矿化作用。至660 Ma左右,开始了早期的洋壳俯冲作用,并沉积有恩古巴群晚期碎屑地层。550 Ma左右,卡拉哈里克拉通与刚果克拉通发生陆-陆碰撞作用,在530 Ma左右,碰撞作用达到高峰阶段,而后期高温变质叠加作用持续到520 Ma左右,挤压作用晚阶段可能受莫桑比克洋闭合阶段近东西向远场挤压应力的影响,板块发生幕式折返作用,形成Hook岩基。约520～470 Ma,为变质岩石抬升冷却阶段。在同构造和构造后期,在变质热液流体作用下,早期矿物再次活化,在构造有利部位形成矿体。     

中非卢菲里安地区铀矿化特征与资源潜力分析

中非卢菲里安地区以铜钴资源闻名于世,同时也赋存一定的铀矿资源。铀成矿作用分别与大陆裂谷及盆地成岩期（876~823 Ma）、早期洋盆形成或大陆碰撞期（720~652 Ma）、卢菲里安变质高峰期（550~530 Ma）相对应。受区域构造活动影响形成的多期次热流体,从基底及加丹加超群富铀岩石萃取铀元素并在构造发育的区域富集成矿为其主要的成矿模式,其变质基底或班委乌卢基底可能提供了铀物质来源,热流体为载体,断裂及穹窿构造则提供通道与空间。含铀矿体多受地层及构造双重控制,围岩褐铁矿化及方柱石化对找矿具有指示意义。研究区内铀矿成矿条件较好,下罗安群受断裂及逆冲推覆构造影响强烈且蚀变较为发育的区域为有利的找矿前景区。     

The Kuara formation (northern Arabian shield); definition and interpretation: a probable fault-trough sedimentary succession

The Kuara Formation was originally described in the Nuqrah quadrangle, northern Arabian Shield, as composed of sedimentary and volcanic rocks and attributed to the Neoproterozoic Shammar group. The group has been examined in the type area of the Kuara Formation. The name ‘Kuara Formation’ is here formally proposed and restricted to the essentially sedimentary succession. The sediments were most likely deposited in an approximately north-south to northeast-southwest fault-bounded basin more than 20 km wide and closed to the south by an approximately east-west fault. The formation probably attained more than 600 m in thickness and is characterized by abundant, locally derived conglomerate and by coarsening-upward sequences organized in megasequences; these are interpreted as representing the progradation of alluvial fans into a lake. Sharp contacts of siltstone overlying conglomerate are interpreted as due to the lowering of the trough floor by faulting, subsequent lacustrine sedimentation corresponding to periods of maximum tectonic activity and alluvial fans prograding, periods of reduced activity. The interpretation of the tectonic environment as one of extensional faulting in a continental setting is in agreement with interpretations proposed for other successions of similar age in Arabia and Egypt.     

滑塌堆积在逆冲构造中的作用——以宁夏牛首山中奥陶统米钵山组为例

宁夏中南部发育的中奥陶统米钵山组中普遍发育着滑塌堆积。综合米钵山组内滑塌堆积的沉积及后期的变形特征,我们认为滑塌堆积在逆冲变形中起着重要的作用,在逆冲构造中滑脱层的发育往往和岩性有关,滑塌堆积也是一种重要而潜在的滑脱层,不仅由于大尺度上其显著的横向不均匀性,中小尺度上其内部也表现出不均一性,因此它的存在使得应力得以在该层集中,变形因此也主要发生在该层中,从而产生滑脱层,而滑塌堆积的围岩变形则很微弱。结合宁夏中宁中南部地区强烈的逆冲推覆作用,我们认为中奥陶统中的滑塌堆积是该区逆冲推覆构造的重要滑脱层,这些滑脱层控制着该地区下古生界的变形。由于这种构造作用的叠加,先前的那些外来岩块逐渐“细粒化”,逆冲作用使得滑脱堆积中的砾石变形成为构造透镜体,这解决了该地区长期存在的有关这些砾石或透镜体是外来体还是本地的争论。我们的研究表明,在宁夏地区中奥陶统中大部分以外来体为主,但也有一定的本地岩层因构造作用成为透镜体,因此在不同地区应该仔细分析。由于牛首山地区逆冲构造比较发育,滑塌堆积转化成广义上的混杂堆积,而同样有滑塌堆积产出的贺兰山地区由于远离祁连山造山带,滑塌堆积得以保存,其中的砾石基本上没有变形。宁夏地区中奥陶统中的滑塌堆积从区域上为我们提供了一个区别滑塌堆积与混杂堆积的例子。     

蒙古国南戈壁省二叠系岩性组合特征及其与内蒙古银额盆地的对比

蒙古国南戈壁省中蒙边界地区分布多个二叠系大型—特大型煤矿,为一套以砾岩为主的粗碎屑岩和含煤系地层夹火山岩建造。银额盆地周缘地表剖面揭示,二叠系发育一套以海相沉积为主的碎屑岩+碳酸盐岩+火山岩建造。银额盆地希热哈达—赛汗桃来地区的钻井资料揭示其为一套粗碎屑岩+含煤系地层夹火山岩岩性组合,与盆地周缘地表剖面各时代地层的岩性组合均存在巨大差异,而与蒙古国南戈壁省二叠系的岩性组合特征相同。通过中蒙边界地区二叠系地层层序与岩性组合特征的对比,明确了银额盆地希热哈达—赛汗桃来地区钻井资料发现的含煤系地层时代为二叠纪,结合沉积充填特征,对银额盆地二叠纪沉积演化与沉积相平面展布有了新的认识,为银额盆地及邻区石炭纪—二叠纪构造演化的研究提供了新的证据。     

Markov chain analysis applied to an ancient alluvial plain succession

Markov chain analysis is a comparatively simple statistical technique for the detection of repetitive processes in space or time. Coal measure cyclothems or fluvial fining-upward cycles are good examples of sedimentary successions laid down under the control of Markovian processes. Analyses of stratigraphic sections commence with a transition count matrix, a two-dimensional array in which all possible vertical lithologic transitions are tabulated. Various probability matrices may be derived from this raw data, and these are then subjected to chi-square tests to determine the presence or absence of the Markov property. This technique is applied to four types of stratigraphic succession which occur in the Devonian rocks of Prince of Wales Island, Arctic Canada. (1) A conglomerate succession of alluvial fan origin. Markov analysis is of little or no assistance in the interpretation of these rocks, in which only two principal lithologies are present. (2) A conglomerate-sandstone succession. Fluvial fining-upward cycles are detectable by visual examination of the sections and are strongly indicated by Markov analysis. (3) A sandstone-carbonate succession, of marginal marine origin, and including both marine and non-marine strata. Cyclicity is weak in these rocks, but analysis suggests that regressions took place much more rapidly than transgressions during their period of deposition. (4) A succession in which the relative proportions of the various lithologies vary markedly with age. The varying nature of the cyclic tendencies is emphasized in this case by dividing the succession into two subintervals, for the purpose of analysis.     

Pendleian (early Serpukhovian) marine carbonates from SW Spain: sedimentology,biostratigraphy and depositional model

The San Antonio–La Juliana tectono‐sedimentary unit contains the only Namurian marine carbonates in the southwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula. The analysis of this unit is fundamental in understanding the sedimentary evolution and tectonic movements which operated during the Namurian in this area. Using foraminifera the succession has been assigned to two biozones (Zones 17 and 18), both occurring in the Pendleian (early Namurian). Seven stratigraphic sections have been analysed: San Antonio, Burjadillo, Lavadero de la Mina, Cornuda, Lozana, Caridad and Via Crucis. The stratigraphic succession of the San Antonio–La Juliana Unit consists of olistolites in the basal part, with common debris‐flow deposits (mainly of carbonates, with minor siliciclastic rocks), and turbidites, all of them embedded in shales. These rocks, interpeted as slope deposits, pass up into shallow‐water platform facies, with sediments characteristic of the inner platform and tidal flats. Above these rocks, terrigenous deltaic deposits occur. Thus, the stratigraphic sections show an overall shallowing‐upward trend. The isolation of some outcrops, and the duplication and absence of some parts of the stratigraphic succession are explained by tectonic movements. Overall, tectonic factors seem to be the main control rather than glacio‐eustatic or autocyclic processes, and sedimentation took place in a strike‐slip regime. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

北祁连石灰沟奥陶纪中堡群滑塌堆积特征及其古地理环境意义

北祁连永登县石灰沟作为奥陶纪中堡群命名地,历来是研究北祁连奥陶纪构造演化的理想场所。依据实测地层剖面,石灰沟奥陶纪中堡群可以划分为上、下两段:下段以中基性火山岩、火山碎屑岩为主;上段以出现大量碳酸盐岩、硅质岩、粉砂岩,夹中基性火山碎屑岩为特征。野外调查过程中发现,中堡群上段发育多层硅质岩,其层内发育强烈的构造变形。经岩石组合、地层序列、沉积相、火山喷发相、变形特征及空间组合关系研究,认为该套特殊的沉积层系为典型的滑塌堆积。根据滑塌堆积的内部结构特征及火山-沉积相序等分析,初步判断其形成于靠近岛弧的深水盆地环境,具多岛洋构造背景。这将为恢复和建立北祁连造山带奥陶纪沉积环境和古地理演化提供可靠依据,也为进一步研究北祁连奥陶纪沟-弧-盆体系空间格局提供了重要沉积学佐证。     

塔里木板块南缘早古生代沉积特征及构造背景探讨

塔里木板块南缘早古生代时期继承了震旦纪的古地理格局，处于浅海陆棚—半深海环境，沉积了一套海相碳酸盐岩和碎屑岩地层。根据区域地层划分、古生物化石和最新的同位素测年数据，确定了塔里林板块南缘地层时代为早古生代。通过沉积学和地球化学方法初步分析，确定了该地区为早古生代的大地构造背景—具有被动大陆边缘性质。因此，系统研究塔里木板块南缘早古生代沉积地层，对于重塑早生代以来该区板块构造格局及演化历史有重要地质意义。     

柴北缘上古生界混合沉积特征及控制因素

柴北缘晚古生代发育多种成因机理各异的混积岩与混积层系。混积岩分为蚀源型砂砾岩,碳酸盐岩-粗陆源碎屑混积岩,泥灰岩(灰泥岩)与含化石泥岩三大类。混积层系在不同环境中均有出现,混积相可划分为混积砂砾质碎屑海岸相、混积低能海岸相、混积台地、混积陆棚4类。在此基础上对各类混积岩、混积层系进行了沉积环境、形成机制解释,归纳出3种不同时期的混积相组合并建立沉积模式。构造运动、海平面升降、气候及古坡角的共同作用导致该区混合沉积普遍发育。其中,加里东构造带的存在及近物源沉积是粗碎屑与生屑颗粒混合的先决条件,海平面频繁变化与极缓的古坡角是该区混积岩、混积层系高频发育的直接原因。