PGE distribution in massive sulfides from the P<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">ACMANUS</Emphasis> hydrothermal field,eastern Manus basin,Papua New Guinea: implications for PGE enrichment in some ancient volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits

The distribution of platinum group elements (PGE) in Cu- and Zn-rich samples from the Roman Ruins and Satanic Mills vent sites in the PACMANUS hydrothermal field (Papua New Guinea) was studied and compared to that from selected ancient volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposits. Samples from the Satanic Mills site are enriched in Pd and Rh when compared to samples from Roman Ruins and reach highest values in active and inactive Cu-rich black smoker chimneys and chalcopyrite-cemented dacite breccias (up to 356 ppb Pd and up to 145 ppb Rh). A significant positive correlation was established between Cu and Pd and Rh in samples from both vent sites. Comparisons of chondrite normalized patterns and values of Pd/Pt and Pd/Ir ratios in Cu-rich sulfides and probable source rocks (felsic volcanic rocks/MORB) along with the evidence for a magmatic component in the PACMANUS hydrothermal system indicate that leaching of back-arc volcanic rocks together with addition of magmatic volatiles to the convecting hydrothermal system was the most important factor for PGE enrichment at PACMANUS and likely at some PGE-enriched ancient VMS deposits.An erratum to this article can be found at Editorial handling: B. Lehmann     

新疆伊宁县塔北铅锌矿床地质特征和S、Pb、C、O同位素组成

塔北铅锌矿床是西天山吐拉苏盆地中新近勘查成功的一个重要热液型铅锌矿床。矿体赋存于晚泥盆世-早石炭世大哈拉军山组第五岩性段酸性凝灰岩中,受断裂构造控制。矿石硫化物的δ³⁴S值介于0.5‰~7.3‰,估算获得成矿流体的总硫同位素值δ³⁴S_∑S约2.7‰,具岩浆硫的特征。晚期石膏的δ³⁴S值为4.7‰~5.3‰,表明石膏可能是火山热液中的SO₂发生歧化反应或火山喷发带出的H₂S挥发分在近地表的氧化环境中反应生成的。矿石铅同位素组成十分稳定,并与大哈拉军山组火山岩的铅同位素组成相似,指示成矿物质来源于赋矿火山岩。碳、氧同位素组成指示成矿流体中碳主要来源于深部岩浆。塔北铅锌矿床可能属于矿化较深的浅成低温热液型矿床。     

冲绳海槽Jade热液活动区块状硫化物的铅同位素组成及其地质意义

新测行Ｊａｄｅ热液活动区中５件块状硫化物样品的铅同位素组成,具有较小的变化范围,表现出较均一的铅同位素组成特征。在Ｐｂ－Ｐｂ图解上,块状硫化物的铅同位素数据构成线形排列,与该区沉积物和蚀变火山岩的铅同位素组成一致,而与该区新鲜火山岩相比具较高的放射成因铅,证实了该区海底块状硫化物中的铅是由沉积物长英质火山岩来源铅共同构成的混合铅。不同热液活动区铅同位素组成对比研究表明,地质－构造环境的不同是导致各     

沉积喷流作用与金矿化的关系

现代洋底多金属块状硫化物和陆上贱金属块状硫化物矿床中的含金性调查研究证实：海底沉积喷流作用不仅能形成十分重要的贱金属硫化物矿床,而且也能导致金的明显富集。通常形成于弧后或岛弧环境下的同长英质火山岩有关的块状硫化物中的金含量较高。大量的金矿床地球化学研究工作已识别出一些沉积喷流型金矿床,此外还发现即使是具有明显后生成矿特征的太古宙绿岩带中的脉状金矿床也显示出其同沉积喷流作用密切的时空关系     

Hydrothermal precipitates associated with bimodal volcanism in the Central Bransfield Strait,Antarctica

Polymetallic sulfide-sulfate mineralization enriched in Pb-Ag-As-Sb-Hg occurs in the Bransfield Strait, a late Tertiary-Quaternary marginal basin close to the Antarctic Peninsula. The mineralization is associated with bimodal volcanism and pelagic and volcaniclastic sediment in rifted continental crust. Hydrothermal precipitates have been recovered from two shallow (1,050–1,000 m water depth) submarine volcanoes (Hook Ridge and Three Sisters) in the Central Bransfield Strait. Mineralization at Hook Ridge consists of polymetallic sulfides, massive barite, and pyrite and marcasite crusts in semilithified pelagic and volcaniclastic sediment. Native sulfur commonly infills void space and cements the volcaniclastic sediment. The polymetallic sulfides are dominated by sphalerite with minor galena, enargite, tetrahedrite-tennantite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and traces of orpiment cemented by barite and opal-A. The presence of enargite at Hook Ridge, the abundance of native sulfur, and the low Fe content of sphalerite indicate a high sulfur activity of the hydrothermal fluids responsible for mineralization. The sulfur isotopic composition of Hook Ridge precipitates documents the complexity of the sulfur sources in this hydrothermal system with variable influence of biological activity and possibly magmatic contributions. Homogenization temperatures and salinities of fluid inclusions in barite and opal-A suggest that boiling may have affected the hydrothermal fluids during their ascent. The discovery of massive barite-silica precipitates at another shallow marine volcano (Three Sisters volcano) attests to the potential for hydrothermal mineralization at other volcanic edifices in the area. The characteristics of the mineralization in the Bransfield Strait with rifting of continental crust, the presence of bimodal volcanism, including highly evolved felsic volcanic rocks, the association with sediments, and the Pb-Ag-As-Sb-Hg enrichment are similar to the setting of massive sulfide deposits in the Okinawa Trough, and distinct from those of sediment-dominated hydrothermal systems such as Escanaba Trough, Middle Valley, and Guaymas Basin. The geological setting of the Bransfield Strait is also broadly similar to that of some of the largest volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits in the ancient record, such as the Iberian Pyrite Belt.Editorial handling: B. Lehmann     

Different mineralization styles in a volcanic-hosted ore deposit: the fluid and isotopic signatures of the Mt Morgan Au–Cu deposit,Australia

Quantitative laser ablation (LA)-ICP-MS analyses of fluid inclusions, trace element chemistry of sulfides, stable isotope (S), and Pb isotopes have been used to discriminate the formation of two contrasting mineralization styles and to evaluate the origin of the Cu and Au at Mt Morgan.The Mt Morgan Au–Cu deposit is hosted by Devonian felsic volcanic rocks that have been intruded by multiple phases of the Mt Morgan Tonalite, a low-K, low-Al₂O₃ tonalite–trondhjemite–dacite (TTD) complex. An early, barren massive sulfide mineralization with stringer veins is conforming to VHMS sub-seafloor replacement processes, whereas the high-grade Au–Cu ore is associated with a later quartz–chalcopyrite–pyrite stockwork mineralization that is related to intrusive phases of the Tonalite complex. LA-ICP-MS fluid inclusion analyses reveal high As (avg. 8850 ppm) and Sb (avg. 140 ppm) for the Au–Cu mineralization and 5 to 10 times higher Cu concentration than in the fluids associated with the massive pyrite mineralization. Overall, the hydrothermal system of Mt Morgan is characterized by low average fluid salinities in both mineralization styles (45–80% seawater salinity) and temperatures of 210 to 270 °C estimated from fluid inclusions. Laser Raman Spectroscopic analysis indicates a consistent and uniform array of CO₂-bearing fluids. Comparison with active submarine hydrothermal vents shows an enrichment of the Mt Morgan fluids in base metals. Therefore, a seawater-dominated fluid is assumed for the barren massive sulfide mineralization, whereas magmatic volatile contributions are implied for the intrusive related mineralization. Condensation of magmatic vapor into a seawater-dominated environment explains the CO₂ occurrence, the low salinities, and the enriched base and precious metal fluid composition that is associated with the Au–Cu mineralization. The sulfur isotope signature of pyrite and chalcopyrite is composed of fractionated Devonian seawater and oxidized magmatic fluids or remobilized sulfur from existing sulfides. Pb isotopes indicate that Au and Cu originated from the Mt Morgan intrusions and a particular volcanic strata that shows elevated Cu background.     

现代海底热液成矿作用

从现代块状硫化物矿床成矿特征对比角度,总结分析了世界现代海底喷流的块状硫化物成矿堆积,综述了现代海底块状硫化物成矿主要形成于洋壳和岛弧环境的实际观察结果,突出强调了洋壳环境和岛弧或陆壳环境两种成矿环境对成矿类型分类的意义。对上地幔部分熔融岩浆来源与地壳物质可能带人、火山喷发岩浆系列的演化和对热液成矿作用的控制进行了讨论,对比分析了岩浆流体对成矿的重要贡献和控制作用,以及成矿热液循环体系形成的条件和模式。     

A tale of elemental accumulation and recycling in the metamorphosed Keketale VMS-type Pb-Zn deposit,Altai Mountains

The elemental accumulation and recycling in the metamorphosed Keketale VMS-type Pb-Zn deposit of the Altai Mountains are presented in this study. Based on detailed fieldwork and microscopic observation, the formation of the deposit involved syngenetic massive sulfide mineralization and epigenetic superimposed mineralization. Different generations of iron sulfides (i.e., pyrite and pyrrhotite) with contrasting textural, elemental, and sulfur isotopic features were generated in primary mineralization (including hydrothermal iron sulfides, colloform pyrite) and secondary modification (including annealed iron sulfides, oriented iron sulfides, and vein-pyrite). It is revealed that the spatial variation in textures and elements of hydrothermal iron sulfides depends on the inhomogeneous fluid compositions and varied environment in VMS hydrothermal system. Both leached sulfur from the footwall volcanic rocks and reduced sulfur by the TSR process are regarded as important sulfur sources. Furthermore, large sulfur isotopic fractionation and negative δ³⁴S values were mainly caused by varied oxygen fugacity, and to a lesser extent, temperature fluctuation. The epigenetic polymetallic veins that contain sulfides and sulfosalts (e.g., jordanite-geocronite, bournonite-seligmannite, boulangerite) were considered as the products of metamorphic fluid scavenged the metal-rich strata. All things considered, it is indicated that two episodes of fluid with distinct origins were essential for the formation of the deposit. The predominant evolved seawater along with subordinate magmatic fluid mobilized metals from volcanic rocks and precipitated massive sulfides near the seafloor are vital for primary mineralization. The metamorphic fluid remobilized metals (i.e., FMEs: fluid mobile elements, e.g., Pb, As, Sb) from neighboring volcanic and pyroclastic rocks and destabilized them within the fractured zone are responsible for secondary mineralization, which enhances the economic value of the deposit. Accordingly, metal-rich Devonian strata had been successively swept by different origins of fluid, leading to progressively elemental enrichment and the formation of a large deposit. Furthermore, the current study enlightens that FME-bearing veins with economic benefits can be discovered near the metamorphosed VMS deposits.     

古代与现代海底黑矿型块状硫化物矿床矿石地球化学比较研究

选择西南太平洋冲绳海槽现代海底烟囱硫化物矿床、日本小坂矿山上向黑矿（第三纪）和中国西南呷村黑矿型矿床（三叠纪）进行了矿石地球化学比较研究。黑矿型矿床矿石吨位－品位模式与其他火山成因块状硫化物（ＶＭＳ）矿床类似，矿田（２０－５０ｋｍ＾２）矿石吨位与单个喷气－沉积型（Ｓｅｄｅｘ）矿床相当，金属总量４－６Ｍｔ，为矿田范围内热液流体搬运的最大金属量。与洋脊环境ＶＭＳ矿床相比，岛弧裂谷环境产出的黑矿型矿床相     

Mineralogy and Isotope Geochemistry of Active Submarine Hydrothermal Field at Suiyo Seamount, Izu–Bonin Arc, West Pacific Ocean

This report presents mineralogical, geochemical and isotopic data on samples obtained using the Benthic Multi‐coring System (BMS) to drill a submarine hydrothermal deposit developed in a caldera on the summit of the Suiyo Seamount in the Izu–Bonin Island Arc, south of Japan. This deposit is regarded as the first example of Kuroko‐type sulfide mineralization on a volcano at the volcanic front of an island arc. The mineralization and hydrothermal alteration below the 300 × 150‐m area of active venting was investigated to depths of 2–9 m below the sea floor. Drilling beneath the area of active venting recovered a sequence of altered volcanic rocks (dacite lavas, pyroclastic rocks of dacite–rhyolite compositions and pumice) associated with sulfide veining and patches/veins of anhydrite. No massive sulfide was found, however, and the subsea‐floor mineralization to 10 m depth is dominated by anhydrite and clay minerals with some sulfides. Sulfide‐bearing samples contained high Au (up to 42 ppm), Ag (up to 263 ppm), As (up to 1550 ppm), Hg (up to 55 ppm), Sb (up to 772 ppm), and Se (up to 24 ppm). Electron probe microanalyzer indicated that realgar, orpiment, and mimetite were major As‐bearing minerals. The sulfides were also characterized by high Zn (>10%) compared to Cu (<6.3%) and Pb (<0.6%). The δ²⁰²Hg/¹⁹⁸Hg, δ²⁰²Hg/¹⁹⁹Hg and δ²⁰²Hg/²⁰⁰Hg of the sulfide‐bearing dacite samples and a sulfide chimney decreased with increasing Hg/Zn concentration ratio. The variation of the δ²⁰²Hg/¹⁹⁸Hg ranged from ?2.8 to +0.5‰ to relative to S‐HG02027. The large range of these δ²⁰²Hg/¹⁹⁸Hg was greater than might be expected for such a heavy element and may be due to a predominance of kinetic effects. The variation of δ²⁰²Hg/¹⁹⁸Hg of sulfide‐bearing dacite samples suggested that light Hg isotope in the vapor mixed with oxygenated seawater near sea floor during mineralization. Lead isotope ratios of the sulfide were very similar to those of the dacite lava, suggesting that lead is of magmatic origin. The ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio (0.70872) of anhydrite was different from that of the dacite lava, and suggests an Sr derivation predominantly from seawater. Hydrothermal alteration of the dacite in the Suiyo hydrothermal field was characterized by Fe‐sulfides, anhydrite, barite, montmorillonite, chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals, mica, and chlorite with little or no feldspar or cristobalite. Hydrothermal clay minerals changed with depth from montmorillonite to chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals to chlorite and mica. Hydrogen isotope ratios of chlorite/montmorillonite and mixed‐layer, mica‐chlorite composites obtained below the active venting sites ranged from ?49 to ?24‰, suggesting seawater as the dominant fluid causing alteration. Oxygen isotope ratios of anhydrite ranged from 9.2 to 10.4‰ and anhydrite formation temperatures were calculated to be 188–207°C. Oxygen isotope ratios ranged from +5.2 to +9.2‰ for montmorillonite, +3.2 to +4.5‰ for chlorite/montmorillonite mixed‐layer minerals, and +2.8 to +3.8‰ in mixtures of chlorite and mica. The formation temperatures of montmorillonite and of the chlorite–mica mixture were 160–250°C and 230–270°C, respectively. The isotope temperatures for clay minerals (220–270°C) and anhydrite (188°C) were significantly lower than the borehole temperature (308.3°C) measured just after the drilling, suggesting that temperature at this site is now higher than when clay minerals and anhydrite were formed.     

陆缘裂谷盆地的形成演化与VMS矿床形成特征和成因类型的关系：以云南鲁春铜矿为例

云南鲁春铜矿位于“三江”地区金沙江造山带内的鲁春—红坡牛场裂谷盆地。研究发现,鲁春铜矿赋存于一套以长英质为主的双峰式火山岩中,矿体分布呈“上层下脉”状,具有“上黄下黑”的金属分带特征,矿石矿物以方铅矿、闪锌矿和黄铜矿为主。而地球化学特征显示矿石与蚀变围岩及矿区火山岩的微量元素配分特征具有良好的相似性。矿石硫化物的δ34S值为115‰~178‰,矿石铅同位素比值为206Pb/204Pb=18498~18626,207Pb/204Pb=15588~15760, 208Pb/204Pb=38430~38974。阐述了鲁春—红坡牛场裂谷盆地的演化历史以及盆地内大量双峰式火山岩具有洋脊或板内拉张的特征,陆缘火山弧中重新拉张塌陷形成裂谷盆地,造成基底玄武岩浆上侵,从而导致大规模双峰式火山岩的喷发,这一系列特殊的构造背景和成矿环境促进了地壳内热液循环系统的形成,含矿热液的上升喷流和矿质沉淀集积,最终导致矿床形成。     

Hydrothermal alteration and sulfide mineralization in gabbroids of the Markov Deep (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 6° N)

A new type of sulfide occurrence related to metasomatically altered brecciated gabbroids has been studied at the Sierra Leone site situated in the axial rift valley of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Markov Deep, 6° N). Two associations of plutonic, subvolcanic, and volcanic rocks were dredged: (1) mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and their intrusive analogues and (2) rocks of the silicic Fe-Ti-oxide series with dominating gabbronorites and sporadic trondhjemites. Almost all igneous rocks at the Sierra Leone site are enriched in Pb, Cu, U, Ga, Ta, Nb, Cs, and Rb and depleted in Zr, Th, and Hf. The rocks of the Fe-Ti-oxide series are enriched in Zn, Sn, and Mo and depleted in Ni and Cr. The main ore-bearing zone is situated at the foot of the eastern wall of the deep, where it is hosted in cataclastic hornblende gabbro and gabbronorite of the Fe-Ti-oxide series. Ore mineralization in metasomatically altered rocks is composed of quartz-sulfide and prehnite-sulfide veinlets, disseminated sulfide, and veined copper sulfide ore. The ore consists of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, bornite, chalcocite, and digenite. The δ³⁴S value of sulfides varies from 3.0 to 15.3‰. At the foot of the eastern wall of the Markov Deep, directly downslope from the ore-bearing zone, loose sediments contain grains of native Cu, Pb, Zn, and Sn and intermetallic compounds (isoferroplatinum, tetraferroplatinum, and brass) apparently derived from the ore. Mineral assemblages of ore-bearing metasomatic rocks and fluid inclusions therein were studied. Ore metasomatism developed under a low oxygen potential within a temperature interval from 400 to 160°C, though initial hydrothermal alteration of rocks proceeded at temperatures of 800–450°C. The temperature of stringer-disseminated ore mineralization is estimated at 170–280°C. The hydrothermal fluids are considered to be of magmatic origin; as the hydrothermal system evolved, they became diluted with seawater that was contained in fractured oceanic crust. The ore matter could have been derived from magmatic fluids that were released from water-saturated melts of the Fe-Ti oxide series during their ascent and leached from host gabbroids in the process of metasomatic alteration.     

Mineralogy, geochemistry, and Nd isotope composition of the Rainbow hydrothermal field, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Petrological, geochemical, and Nd isotopic analyses have been carried out on rock samples from the Rainbow vent field to assess the evolution of the hydrothermal system. The Rainbow vent field is an ultramafic-hosted hydrothermal system located on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge characterized by vigorous high-temperature venting (∼365°C) and unique chemical composition of fluids: high chlorinity, low pH and very high Fe, and rare earth element (REE) contents (Douville et al., Chemical Geology 184:37–48, 2002). Serpentinization has occurred under a low-temperature (<270°C) retrograde regime, later overprinted by a higher temperature sulfide mineralization event. Retrograde serpentinization reactions alone cannot reproduce the reported heat and specific chemical features of Rainbow hydrothermal fluids. The following units were identified within the deposit: (1) nonmineralized serpentinite, (2) mineralized serpentinite—stockwork, (3) steatite, (4) semimassive sulfides, and (5) massive sulfides, which include Cu-rich massive sulfides (up to 28wt% Cu) and Zn-rich massive sulfide chimneys (up to 5wt% Zn). Sulfide mineralization has produced significant changes in the sulfide-bearing rocks including enrichment in transition metals (Cu, Zn, Fe, and Co) and light REE, increase in the Co/Ni ratios comparable to those of mafic Cu-rich volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits and different ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd isotope ratios. Vent fluid chemistry data are indicative of acidic, reducing, and high temperature conditions at the subseafloor reaction zone where fluids undergo phase separation most likely under subcritical conditions (boiling). An explanation for the high chlorinity is not straightforward unless mixing with high salinity brine or direct contribution from a magmatic Cl-rich aqueous fluid is considered. This study adds new data, which, combined with the current knowledge of the Rainbow vent field, brings compelling evidence for the presence, at depth, of a magmatic body, most likely gabbroic, which provides heat and metals to the system. Co/Ni ratios proved to be good tools used to discriminate between rock units, degree of sulfide mineralization, and positioning within the hydrothermal system. Deeper units have Co/Ni <1 and subsurface and surface units have Co/Ni >1.     

Origin of Bornite Pods in Intrusive Rocks at the Kingking Porphyry Copper-gold Deposit, Southeastern Mindanao, Philippines

At the Kingking porphyry copper-gold deposit, Compostela Valley, south-eastern Mindanao, Philippines, bornite pods occur in the brecciated parts in the biotite diorite porphyry, together with the volcanic rock and diorite fragments without associated stockworks of quartz veinlets. These pods are generally elongated in shape and measure several centimeters across their longest axes. They are composed of bornite and chalcopyrite with traces of calaverite. The δ³⁴S of bornite and subordinate chalcopyrite of bornite pods ranging from −2.2‰ to +0.1‰ are similar to the δ³⁴S of sulfides associated with quartz veinlets such as bornite and chalcopyrite ranging from −4.7‰ to ±0.0‰. This suggests that the ultimate source of sulfur is identical for bornite pods and sulfides associated with quartz veinlets. Bornite pods are associated with volcanic rock and dioritic fragments in the brecciated portion of the biotite diorite porphyry. It was observed that some dioritic fragments contain quartz veinlets, which may indicate an earlier episode of mineralization. Fragments of the earlier dioritic intrusive rocks and the volcanic rocks, together with the sulfides were incorporated into the biotite diorite porphyry magma. A molten sulfide is possible for the composition between bornite and intermediate solid solution at ∼800°C. The sulfides from the earlier dioritic intrusive rocks in the molten state were segregated and then eventually coalesce to form the bornite pods in the brecciated section of the biotite diorite porphyry.     

The use of fluorine as a pathfinder for volcanic-hosted massive sulfide ore deposits

A multi-element geochemical study of the wall rocks of intermediate to felsic volcanic-hosted massive sulfide deposits was carried out to identify pathfinder elements which significantly enlarge the size of exploration targets. Drill core samples from the Crandon massive sulfide deposit in Wisconsin, and outcrop samples from the United Verde and Iron King deposits in Arizona, and from the Captains Flat, Mt. Costigan, and Wiseman Creek deposits in New South Wales, Australia were analyzed. Because anomalously high fluorine values have been described in several volcanic-hosted ore systems, fluorine was included in the study.All of the above deposits have patterns of fluorine enrichment around ore. Drill core samples from two noneconomic prospects within ten miles of the Crandon deposit contain background to only weakly anomalous fluorine values.At the large Crandon deposit (> 50 million tons of zinc, copper ore), fluorine enrichment extends approximately 320 m into the footwall rocks and at least 220 m into the hanging wall rocks. At the large United Verde deposit (> 50 million tons of copper, zinc ore), fluorine enrichment is recognizable in the footwall rocks at least 650 m from the ore. At the smaller Iron King deposit (five million tons production of zinc, lead, copper ore), fluorine enrichment extends for a distance of approximately 60 m into the footwall rocks. At the small deposits in New South Wales (< five million tons production of zinc, lead, copper ore), fluorine enrichment is easily recognizable, but with the samples collected, the limits of the anomalous patterns cannot be defined.Fluorine occurs in some hydrothermal systems unassociated with mineralization and is therefore not a specific signature of ore-forming processes. From the work completed, many massive sulfide deposits in volcanic rocks occur in hydrothermal systems which contain fluorine. On the basis of the data presented, if anomalously high fluorine values do exist in an exploration search area, the chances of finding a massive sulfide ore deposit are improved.Genetic models for volcanic-hosted massive sulfide ore deposits have concentrated on rock textures, alteration mineralogy, and geochemistry of the ore metals. From the data presented, fluorine should be considered as a component of massive sulfide systems in intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks, and should be considered as a possible complexing agent for the ore metals.     

Geology,mineralogy, and sulfur isotope geochemistry of the Sargaz Cu–Zn volcanogenic massive sulfide deposit,Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone,Iran

The Sargaz Cu–Zn massive sulfide deposit is situated in the southeastern part of Kerman Province, in the southern Sanandaj–Sirjan Zone of Iran. The stratigraphic footwall of the Sargaz deposit is Upper Triassic to Lower Jurassic (?) pillowed basalt, whereas the stratigraphic hanging wall is andesite. Mafic volcanic rocks are overlain by andesitic volcaniclastics and volcanic breccias and locally by heterogeneous debris flows. Rhyodacitic flows and volcaniclastics overlie the sequence of basaltic and andesitic rocks. Based on the bimodal nature of volcanism, the regional geologic setting and petrochemistry of the volcanic rocks, we suggest massive sulfide mineralization in the Sargaz formed in a nascent ensialic back-arc basin. The current reserves (after ancient mining) of the Sargaz deposit are 3 Mt at 1.34% Cu, 0.38% Zn, 0.08%Pb, 0.24 g/t Au, and 7 g/t Ag. The structurally dismembered massive sulfide lens is zoned from a pyrite-rich base, to a pyrite?±?chalcopyrite-rich central part, and a sphalerite–chalcopyrite-rich upper part, with a sphalerite-rich zone lateral to the upper part. The main sulfide mineral is pyrite, with lesser chalcopyrite and sphalerite. The feeder zone, comprised of a vein stockwork consists of quartz–sulfide–sericite pesudobreccia and, in the deepest part, chlorite–quartz–pyrite pesudobreccia. Footwall hydrothermal alteration extends at least 70–80 m below the massive sulfide lens and more than a hundred meters along strike from the massive sulfide lens. Jasper and Fe–Mn bearing chert horizons lateral to the sulfide deposit represent low-temperature hydrothermal precipitates of the evolving hydrothermal system. Based on mineral textures and paragenetic relationships, the growth history of the Sargaz deposit is complex and includes: (1) early precipitation of sulfides (protore) on the seafloor as precipitation of fine-grained anhedral pyrite, sphalerite, quartz, and barite; (2) anhydrite precipitation in open spaces and mineral interstices within the sulfide mound followed by its subsequent dissolution, formation of breccia textures, and mound clasts and precipitation of coarse-grained pyrite, sphalerite, tetrahedrite–tennantite, galena and barite; (3) replacement of pre-existing sulfides by chalcopyrite precipitated at higher temperatures (zone refining); (4) continued “refining” led to the dissolution of stage 3 chalcopyrite and formation of a base-metal-depleted pyrite body in the lowermost part of the massive sulfide lens; (5) carbonate veins were emplaced into the sulfide lens, replacing stage 2 barite. The δ³⁴S composition of the sulfides ranges from +2.8‰ to +8.5‰ (average, +5.6‰) with a general increase of δ³⁴S ratios with depth within the massive sulfide lens and underlying stockwork zone. The heavier values indicate that some of the sulfur was derived from seawater sulfate that was ultimately thermochemically reduced in deep hydrothermal reaction zones.     

Black shales and massive sulfide deposits: causal or casual relationships? Insights from Rammelsberg, Tharsis, and Draa Sfar

Black shales and massive sulfides represent reduced lithofacies that require isolation from oxic environments to be preserved. This, together with the sedimentary affinity of both lithofacies, can explain their common concurrence in the geologic record. The present study is based on the comparison of Rammelsberg in Germany, Tharsis in Spain, and Draa Sfar in Morocco, three massive sulfide deposits closely associated with black shales that are distributed along the European and North African Variscan orogen. The study entails geochemical, biostratigraphic, and stratigraphic analyses of the black shale sequences hosting the three deposits and mineralogical and textural analyses of the sulfides. All three deposits were formed in immature, tectonically unstable basins within an active continental margin or continental magmatic arc. Their stratigraphic records consist of a sequence of black shales enclosing massive sulfides and variable proportions of bimodal volcanic and subvolcanic rocks. The major differences among the three deposits concern the size, composition, and mineralogy. Regarding age, they are diachronous and younger southward: Rammelsberg is middle Eifelian, Tharsis latest Famennian, and Draa Sfar late Viséan. The study of redox conditions of the paleoenvironment using organic and inorganic proxies highlights similarities and significant differences among the three ore-hosting basins during massive sulfide and black shale deposition. The black shales generally display low C_org and high S_tot contents. At Rammelsberg, the S_tot/C_tot ratios provide values typical for normal Middle Devonian marine environments, which suggests that the original reactive organic C is now fixed in carbonates. At Tharsis, most of the samples have C_org >1 and S_tot/C_org values equivalent to those of Devonian?CCarboniferous normal marine sediments. However, some pyritic hanging-wall samples have C_org <1 and S_tot up to 5?wt.%, suggesting the epigenetic addition of HS^?. The S_tot/C_org ratio for the Draa Sfar samples resembles that of Middle Carboniferous normal marine environments. Geochemical inorganic proxies used to define the environmental conditions include the enrichment factors of U (U_EF) and Mo (Mo_EF) together with V/Cr and V/(V?+?Ni) ratios. Footwall shales at Filón Norte (Tharsis) show positive and eventually elevated U_EF and Mo_EF values, which suggests anoxic conditions, whereas at Rammelsberg and Draa Sfar oxic bottom water is indicated. The relations V/Cr and V/(V + Ni) in all three cases point to a redox boundary near the sediment?Cwater interface, although at Tharsis some samples indicate anoxic/euxinic conditions (i.e., V/(V + Ni) >0.9). Regarding the environmental conditions of the source areas, feldspar illitization and selective depletion in Na and Ca occurred at the three studies sites. Available sulfur isotopic data from the Rammelsberg and Tharsis sulfide ore indicate that biogenic reduction of marine sulfate was a major sulfur source during massive sulfide generation. Nevertheless, a hydrothermal sulfur source has also been detected. At Rammelsberg, this is indicated from the polymetallic sulfides that replace sedimentary and diagenetic pyrite. At Tharsis, the bacteriogenic sulfur signature is also restricted to sulfide with less evolved textures, whereas a hydrothermal source is more evident in sulfides showing evidence of recrystallization. Both geochemical and isotopic data suggest that the bacteriogenic reduction process was inhibited by rapid burial. The sedimentation rates calculated for Rammelsberg, Tharsis, and Draa Sfar were in the range 7?C13, 8?C14, and 19?C27?cm/ka, respectively. Continuous sedimentation of black shale favored the isolation of the massive sulfides and organic material from bottom waters and hence favored their preservation. Accordingly, the relationships between black shales and massive sulfides are considered to be casual. Nevertheless, the tectono-sedimentary evolution of each basin controlled the deposition of both black shales and massive sulfides and the parameters that favored their coeval deposition.     

火山成因块状硫化物矿床研究进展

火山成因块状硫化物（VMS）矿床可形成于太古宙至现代各个地质时期.现代海底热液成矿作用是赋存于海相火山岩系中的古代VMS矿床成矿作用的再现.VMS矿床可形成于多种构造环境,但均与拉张背景有关.按照构造环境和容矿岩系将VMS矿床分为黑矿型、塞浦路斯型、别子型和沙利文型.VMS矿床的热液蚀变由下盘蚀变带和上盘蚀变带两个结构单元组成.下盘蚀变一般有两种类型：（1）不整合的蚀变岩筒,直接产在块状硫化物带的下方;（2）半整合或层控的上盘蚀变带,并可以在区域范围内展布.与下盘蚀变类似,上盘蚀变也具有蚀变岩筒和半整合的蚀变带两种类型.成矿金属主要有两种可能的来源：（1）在岩浆侵入体和浅位岩浆房之上被加热的循环海水对含矿火山岩系及下伏基底物质的淋滤;（2）深部岩浆房挥发分通过释气作用直接释放.下渗的海水是成矿流体的主要来源,同时流体包裹体和稳定同位素资料显示岩浆流体对成矿流体系统亦有较大贡献.VMS矿床具有明显的金属分带现象,其金属序列组合从下至上依次为Fe→Fe-Cu→Cu-Pb-Zn→Pb-Zn-Ba,这种金属分带的演化反应了流体的演化和块状硫化物丘的生长机制.根据成矿流体温度变化而不断演化的4阶段成矿模式可以很好的解释经典丘堆式矿床的形成过程.     

论德尔尼黄铁矿型铜 钴矿床的地质特征及其与塞浦路斯铜矿的区别

通过对德尔尼铜 钴矿床与塞浦路斯铜矿的对比,进一步明确了德尔尼铜 钴矿床为与印支期黑云花岗岩有成因联系的岩浆热液矿床。矿区的超基性岩或超基性火山角砾岩都是不含矿的,与矿床无成因联系;底辟上升侵位也不存在。将德尔尼铜 钴矿床作为火山岩块状硫化物矿床系列中的最基性端员缺乏依据。     

论德尔尼黄铁矿型铜钴矿床的地质特征及其与塞浦路斯铜矿的区别

通过对德尔尼铜钴矿床与塞浦路斯铜矿的对比,进一步明确了德尔尼铜钴矿床为与印支期黑云花岗岩有成因联系的岩浆热液矿床。矿区的超基性岩或超基性火山角砾岩都是不含矿的,与矿床无成因联系;底辟上升侵位也不存在。将德尔尼铜钴矿床作为火山岩块状硫化物矿床系列中的最基性端员缺乏依据。