福建长乐东部海岸沙丘发育成因及特征

通过对长乐东部沿海海岸沙丘的形成及其发育成因进行分析,认为风况、沙源和地形空间是形成该地区海岸沙丘的基本条件。另外,根据沙丘的空间组合、形态特征、地貌特点等,对该地区的海岸沙丘分布形态进行了进一步的分类阐述。     

侵蚀型沙丘:来自火星的启示

风沙地貌分为风积地貌和风蚀地貌两大范畴,风积地貌即指各种沙丘.沙丘地貌虽然是风沙堆积的产物,但其形态和类型是风沙蚀积时空变化规律的表现,在堆积形成之后,风蚀作用在沙丘形态塑造过程中有时会具有重要作用,从而形成独特的侵蚀型沙丘.但由于有悖于传统风积地貌的理解,侵蚀型沙丘长期被忽视.然而,在火星沙丘地貌的形态和分布规律研究中,已发现大量的与地球常见沙丘地貌具有微妙差异的沙丘地貌形态,并将其归咎于沙源供应不充分的发育环境.重温法国学者Mainguet沙丘分类方案中关于侵蚀型沙丘的论述,以及经典风沙地貌学理论关于沙丘形态控制因素的概念框架,明确指出研究侵蚀型沙丘的必要性.系统分析了火星沙丘地貌形态特征后,初步辨认出火星的10种侵蚀型沙丘,分析其形态特征、发育环境及可能的形成机制.地球干旱区广袤的盐碱地是极有可能发育侵蚀型沙丘的地区,具有类似火星沙源供应不足的环境,在中国柴达木盆地沙漠中发现了多种侵蚀型沙丘地貌.据此推断,侵蚀型沙丘在地球上比较普遍,其研究对发展风沙地貌学理论具有重要意义,对中国未来的火星探测与研究具有参考意义.     

内蒙古高原小叶锦鸡儿(Caragana microphylla)灌丛沙丘:形态特征及表面气流

小叶锦鸡儿灌丛沙丘是内蒙古高原阴山北麓农牧交错带的主要风沙堆积类型.野外调查表明灌丛沙丘在该区主要分布在耕地、冲积扇下风侧和村落周围等人类活动频繁的地段.根据对耕地、冲积扇下风侧典型样地灌丛沙丘形态参数的详细测量和沙丘及丘间地气流的系统观测结果,发现灌丛沙丘覆盖度及风沙沉积量顺风向减小,近地面气流空气动力学粗糙度顺风向减小;在沙丘单体,风速廓线由迎风坡经丘顶至背风坡趋于复杂.在沙丘形态诸参数中,沙丘高度与水平尺度之间存在良好的幂函数相关,表明在目前风况和沙源环境中该区灌丛沙丘处在加积增高阶段,但其速率小于水平扩展.该区灌丛沙丘的规模主要受上风侧可供沙源有效性和灌丛生长状况的控制,灌丛沙丘的出现是该区土壤风蚀和土地退化的主要标志.     

深空探测时代的风沙地貌学

"深海、深地、深空"探测为地球科学发展提供了机遇与挑战,地球科学开始迎接以火星探测为代表的深空探测高潮。中国将于2020年实施火星探测计划,对火星开展全球性、综合性的环绕探测,并对局部地区开展巡视探测。行星地学研究,包括风沙地貌学,需要未雨绸缪,做好准备。基于风沙地貌学的发展历史与趋势,将发展历史划分为只关注风沙地貌本身的经典研究、关注地球系统的现代研究和关注地外星球的未来研究3个阶段,总结了各阶段的特点,认为深空探测时代的行星风沙地貌学研究已水到渠成。随之重点总结了行星风沙地貌学的发展与成就,指出亟待解决的问题,展望未来发展方向。现已探明在火星、金星和土卫六上有多种类型风沙地貌发育,风成过程甚至是这些星球最活跃的现代表面过程。不同星球风沙地貌具有较好的相似性,但差异也很明显,意味着风沙地貌发育机理的统一性和形成条件的多样性,风沙地貌学理论需要通过不同星球风沙地貌的对比研究逐步完善和拓展。地外行星上较为简单的形成条件在展示风沙地貌形成规律和机理方面具有明显优势,深空探测时代的风沙地貌学方兴未艾。     

火星独特风沙地貌之横向沙脊

横向沙脊是火星独特风沙地貌类型之一,近20年来研究者们借助高分辨率火星遥感探测资料开展了系列研究。总结了横向沙脊的分布规律、形态特征、沉积物组成、形成过程及其形成时代等方面的研究成果。火星横向沙脊是高度为米级,间距为10 m级的风成床面形态类型,主要分布于赤道和低纬度地区,而且南半球较北半球多。高反照率和对称的截面形态是其突出的特征,与地球上的巨型沙波纹和反向沙丘的截面形态类似。横向沙脊沉积物粒度组成一般具有双峰型特征,表层为粗沙覆盖,但热惯性较低。目前关于横向沙脊的形成过程有3种假说:巨型沙波纹假说、反向沙丘假说和粉尘胶结假说,但支持巨型沙波纹假说的证据最多。火星横向沙脊与沙丘一样,属于新近的火星地貌类型,但其形成时间一般较沙丘早,多形成于近几百万年以来,所以常被胶结或岩化,不具流动性,但也有少数现代时期形成的活动性横向沙脊。横向沙脊的独特性使其成为最令人困惑的火星风沙地貌类型之一,以至于研究者们对其在风沙地貌分类系统中的归属尚有争议。针对横向沙脊研究的需要,未来火星探测亟需提供两个方面的高分辨率遥感信息,即横向沙脊沉积物组成和若干区域的综合集成勘测。     

青海共和盆地多石在沟河道沙丘现代风水交互过程

选择青海共和盆地多石在沟河道中6道新月形沙丘链作为研究对象,采用Trimble4700DGPS与常规测量手段,结合野外风沙观测与自动气象站数据,初步观测分析了2006年多石在沟河道沙丘在不同季节的形态变化过程,计算出2006年风季前比雨季后多石在沟河道沙丘体积减小了548.3m³,风积量为2351m³,流水的蚀平量为2899m³,2006年风水两相营力对河道沙丘的侵蚀贡献率约为45%∶55%,流水的搬运作用强于风力的堆积作用。但从较长的时间尺度来看,研究区的风力侵蚀作用强于流水侵蚀作用,河道沙丘不断增大。多石在沟河道沙丘是一个典型的风水交互作用系统,河道成为风力与流水交互作用的"中转站",在风水的交替作用下,沉积物由风积环境进入流水环境中。     

巴丹东、西湖地貌演化及其对湖泊水体特征的影响

巴丹湖区位于巴丹吉林沙漠的东南缘,发育很多被纵向沙垄一分为二、水体化学特征悬殊的双湖系统。前人对此类湖泊成因及风成地貌过程如何影响湖泊水文特征缺乏系统的研究。通过对沙漠东南缘局部风向和巴丹东、西湖湖盆形态的分析反演湖区的地貌演化,从而对湖泊水化学等特征的差异进行解释。水化学测试结果显示：巴丹东湖湖水的TDS为15 g/L左右,为微咸水;西湖的TDS是东湖的上百倍,为盐水。Google Earth遥感影像和DEM反映出巴丹吉林沙漠盛行NW风,东南缘风向及风力多变;巴丹东湖湖盆深于西湖湖盆。反演了巴丹湖地貌演化的3个阶段：(1)月牙湖形成阶段,即巴丹湖的形成阶段;(2)双湖系统形成阶段,气候干旱使湖泊水位降低、湖盆出露,在NW定向风作用下,新的新月形沙丘形成于湖盆上,将其分割从而导致巴丹东湖湖盆遭受风蚀;(3)纵向沙垄形成阶段,由于局部风向的改变,新月形沙丘在SW向风力作用下往NE向不断延伸,并转变成纵向沙垄。综合分析认为：气候变化是风成地貌演化的驱动力,多次风向的改变产生了湖盆地形西高东低的差异,导致东湖接受的浅层地下水补给大于西湖;当气候变得暖湿时,水位上升致两湖水体连通,由于东湖水位高于西湖,使东湖盐分释放、西湖盐分积累。因此,受地貌演化的影响,巴丹东、西湖形成了悬殊的盐度特征。     

海岸沙地风蚀坑形态—动力学研究进展

风蚀坑作为一种沙地负地形一直是风沙地貌学的主要研究对象之一,尤其是国际上对海岸沙地风蚀坑进行了基本形态、发育过程、动力机制的多方位长期研究。基于对海岸沙地风蚀坑研究的系统回顾,概括了海岸沙地风蚀坑在形态发育演化、形态—动力学过程、研究方法等方面的主要进展,并针对海岸沙地风蚀坑研究之不足,提出目前我国海岸沙地风蚀坑研究中应加强在不同类型风蚀坑形态演化机制、形态—物质—动力过程以及数值模拟方面开展深入研究,并重视风蚀坑对海滩—沙丘动态环境系统及前丘治理的影响。     

构造地貌学

构造地貌学(Tectonic Geomorphology)是一门介于地貌学、地球动力学和构造地质学之间的边缘学科。其研究对象是由地壳新构造运动直接形成的一种动态的、积极活跃的地貌(或地形),称为构造地貌(Tectonic Landform,Morphotectonics)。台湾省文献称为造构地形,日本文献称为变动地形。该学科的任务是:研究构造地貌(包括相关沉积)的形成过程与发育规律,并藉此反推在一定的构造应力场作用下的地壳运动特征,解决实际应用中的问题。     

沙丘背风侧气流及其沉积类型与意义

在腾格里沙漠东南缘对现代沙丘表面气流、沉积过程的野外观测结果表明,由于区域气流、沙丘形态及其相互作用等的不同使沙丘背风坡气流发生变化,在此发现三种背风坡次生气流 :分离流、附体未偏向流和附体偏向流。前者以弱的反向流为特征多发生在横向气流条件下坡度较陡的背风坡;后二者具有相对高的风速,其中附体流多发生在坡度缓和的背风坡,其方向在横向气流条件下保持原来的方向,而在斜向气流作用下发生偏转且其强度为原始风入射角的余弦函数。根据背风坡气流方向及强度,作者阐述了不同区域气流环境中沙丘背风坡沉积过程、层理类型及特征,探讨了交错层产状与区域气流方向之间的关系.     

Migration and growth of aeolian bedforms

A two-dimensional analytical model is developed for the morphodynamics of aeolian dunes. The basis of the model is the sediment continuity equation, which is solved using a linearized sediment transport formula. The air flow over the topography is calculated with a steady-state boundary-layer model. This results in a series of analytical expressions for the shear stress, sediment transport, topography through time, and growth and migration of a sine-shaped dune. These expressions give quantitative relationships between bedform behavior (i.e., growth and migration) and factors such as wind velocity and surface roughness. In this way it can be seen that growth and migration rates increase for higher wind velocity, higher surface roughness and higher wave numbers (i.e., shorter wave lengths).     

Wind regimes and aeolian geomorphology in the western and southwestern Tengger Desert,NW China

Wind is the primary control on the formation of aeolian geomorphology. In this study, we combined wind regime data from automated weather stations in the western and southwestern Tengger Desert of the Inner Mongolia region in China with remote‐sensing data to analyse the relationship between the wind energy environment and aeolian geomorphology. Tengger Desert is one of the main dust storm sources in northwestern China. Therefore, efforts aimed at controlling desertification and dust storm require a deeper understanding of the processes that govern the formation and subsequent evolution of dunes in this area. Wind speed was largest in the northwest (3.3 m/s in the Xiqu station) and smallest in the southeast (1.2 m/s in the Haizitan station). Potential sand transport was also largest in the northwest (195 in the Jiahe station) and smallest in the southeast (33 in the Tumen station). The sand‐driving wind (5.92 m/s) directions were from the NW and SE quadrant across the study area, at >76% of all sand‐driving wind, reaching 99% in the Tumen station. The sand‐driving wind in the NW quadrant reached >48%, and in the SE quadrant, >12% of all sand‐driving wind in all stations. In the study area, sand dunes included crescent, dune networks, transverse, and coppice dunes. Dune crest directions had similar trends from upwind to downwind, at 133° in the middle region, and 124° in the southwestern region. Mean dune spacing changed with dune patterns; the maximum spacing for crescent dunes was 147 m, for dune networks 118 m, and for transverse dunes it was 77 m. The mean crest length was 124 m (maximum) for crescent dunes in the northwest, 121 m for transverse dunes, and 84 m for dune networks. However, because of gullies in the southern region, the mean crest length was only 58 m (least) for the crescent dunes in that area. The defect density ranged from 0.007 to 0.014. The spatial differences in dune patterns reflected the evolution of the dune field, where older dunes had been formed upwind and younger downwind. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Geomorphology of desert sand dunes: A review of recent progress

Through the 1980s and 1990s studies of the geomorphology of desert sand dunes were dominated by field studies of wind flow and sand flow over individual dunes. Alongside these there were some attempts numerically to model dune development as well as some wind tunnel studies that investigated wind flow over dunes. As developments with equipment allowed, field measurements became more sophisticated. However, by the mid-1990s it was clear that even these more complex measurements were still unable to explain the mechanisms by which sand is entrained and transported. Most importantly, the attempt to measure the stresses imposed by the wind on the sand surface proved impossible, and the use of shear (or friction) velocity as a surrogate for shear stress also failed to deliver. At the same time it has become apparent that turbulent structures in the flow may be as or more important in explaining sand flux. In a development paralleled in fluvial geomorphology, aeolian geomorphologists have attempted to measure and model turbulent structures over dunes. Progress has recently been made through the use of more complex numerical models based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Some of the modelling work has also suggested that notions of dune ‘equilibrium’ form may not be particularly helpful. This range of recent developments has not meant that field studies are now redundant. For linear dunes careful observations of individual dunes have provided important data about how the dunes develop but in this particular field some progress has been made through ground-penetrating radar images of the internal structure of the dunes.

The paradigm for studies of desert dune geomorphology for several decades has been that good quality empirical data about wind flow and sand flux will enable us to understand how dunes are created and maintain their form. At least some of the difficulty in the past arose from the plethora of undirected data generated by largely inductive field studies. More recently, attention has shifted–although not completely–to modelling approaches, and very considerable progress has been made in developing models of dune development. It is clear, however, that the models will continue to require accurate field observations in order for us to be able to develop a clear understanding of desert sand dune geomorphology.     

Characteristics and Formation Mechanism of Wind Streaks on Mars

Wind streaks with two-dimensional plane shapes are a collective term for a variety of aeolian features that display distinctive albedo surface patterns and they do not have three-dimensional shape. Wind streaks are widely distributed on Mars， and are good proxy indicators of the surface wind regime， and even of global circulation patterns on Mars. However， the study on wind streaks has been largely ignored for a long time. Based on published studies， this paper summarized the types， morphology and formation mechanism of wind streaks. According to the relationship between albedo and obstacles， wind streaks can be divided into six basic types： bright wind streaks， dark wind streaks， mixed-tone wind streaks， splotches and related wind streaks， dune shadow wind streaks and frost wind streaks， of which the bright and dark streaks are the most common and representative， for they are the most abundant types of variable features on Mars. Wind streaks are primarily distributed in the latitudinal zone between 60°S and 60°N with little difference among different types， and they have many shapes such as tapered， fan， oval and parallel shapes due to the diverse obstacles. Considering the relationship between sediment characteristics and aeolian erosion and deposition， bright wind streaks are generally depositional with a consensus and dark streaks are erosional with a controversy. In the absence of Martian meteorological observation data， the retrieval of surface wind regime based on the orientation of wind streaks has good reliability， which helps to understand the modifications of Martian surfaces by wind in the geological context.     

Modelling controls on aeolian dune‐field pattern evolution

A second‐generation, source‐to‐sink cellular automaton‐based model presented here captures and quantifies many of the factors controlling the evolution of aeolian dune‐field patterns by varying only a small number of parameters. The role of sediment supply, sediment availability and transport capacity (together defined as sediment state) in the development and evolution of an aeolian dune‐field pattern over long time scales is quantified from model simulations. Seven dune‐field patterns can be classified from simulation results varying the sediment supply and transport capacity that control the type and frequency of dune interactions, the sediment availability of the system and, ultimately, the development of dune‐field patterns. This model allows predictions to be made about the range of sediment supply and wind strengths required to produce the dune‐field patterns seen in the real world. A new clustered dune‐field pattern is identified from model results and used to propose an alternative mechanism for the formation of superimposed dunes. Bedforms are hypothesized to cluster together, simultaneously forming two spatial scales of bedforms without first developing a large basal dune with small superimposed dunes. Manipulation of boundary conditions produces evolving dune fields with different spatial configurations of sediment supply. Trends of spacing and crest length increase with decreasing variability as the dune field matures. This simple model is a valuable tool which can be used to elucidate the dominant control of aeolian sediment state on the construction and evolution of aeolian dune‐field patterns.     

Aeolian Geomorphology in the Era of Deep Space Exploration

The exploration of "Deep Sea, Deep Earth and Deep Space" provides opportunities and challenges for the development of geoscience, and geographical science begins to meet the climax of deep space exploration represented by Mars. In China, Martian exploration will be launched in 2020, which will carry out global and comprehensive surrounding exploration of Mars, patrol detection in some local areas, researchers need to be well prepared for the study of planetary geosciences including aeolian geomorphology based on these coming data. Aeolian geomorphology is divided into three stages based on the development history and trend: classical research focusing on single dune observation, modern research with earth system ideology and future research mainly on extra-terrestrial planets. The characteristics of each developing stage were summarized, and we believe that the planetary aeolian research will come naturally. Then, the development and achievement of planetary aeolian research are summarized, the existing problems and future developing trend were also discussed here. Study shows that there are many types of aeolian landforms on Mars, Venus and Titan, and the aeolian process is the most active modern surface process. Aeolian geomorphology in different planets has good similarity, but the difference is also obvious, which means that they have similar formation mechanism, but different formation and evolution conditions, therefore, the theory of aeolian geomorphology will be improved and enriched gradually through the comparative study on different planets. There are obvious advantages in revealing the formation laws and mechanism of aeolian geomorphology in extraterrestrial planets because of the simple formation conditions, and the research of aeolian geomorphology in the era of deep space exploration is in the ascendant.     

Temporal trends in grain-size measures on a linear sand dune

Within aeolian dune systems spatial patterns of grain-size variation have been recognized, but little has been said about temporal changes. Increasingly it is becoming clear that linear dunes are associated with bi-directional wind regimes which are often seasonal. In the Namib Sand Sea, where linear dunes are aligned roughly north-south, winds blow from the west in summer and from the east in winter. In response to this regime, sand is eroded from the west slopes and deposited on the east slopes in summer, and eroded from the east slopes and deposited on the west slopes in winter. Preliminary evidence from a study of a single Namib linear dune reported here confirms that this seasonal aeolian regime induces seasonal responses in some grain-size measurements due to the dynamics of sand transport on the dune, the characteristics of the sand source immediately upwind of the sample point and the nature of the deposit. Thus, time of sampling is crucial to the results obtained.     

Stratigraphic evolution and preservation of aeolian dune and damp/wet interdune strata: an example from the Triassic Helsby Sandstone Formation, Cheshire Basin, UK

Abstract New and previously published models of wet aeolian system evolution form a spectrum of types that may be explained in terms of aeolian dune dynamics, rate of water table rise and/or periodicity of interdune flooding. This is illustrated with an example from the Mid‐Triassic (Anisian) Helsby Sandstone Formation, Cheshire, UK. Lenses of damp and wet interdune strata exhibit an intertonguing, transitional relationship with the toe‐sets of overlying aeolian dune units. This signifies dune migration that was contemporaneous with water table‐controlled accumulation in adjacent interdunes. Downwind changes in the geometry and facies of the interdune units indicate periodic expansion and contraction of the interdunes in response to changes in the elevation of the groundwater table and episodic flooding, during which accumulation of dune strata continued relatively uninterrupted. This contrasts with other models for accumulation in wet aeolian systems where interdune flooding is associated with a cessation in aeolian bedform climbing and the formation of a bypass or erosional supersurface. Architectural panels document the detailed stratigraphy in orientations both parallel and perpendicular to aeolian transport direction, enabling a quantitative three‐dimensional reconstruction of genetically related aeolian dune and interdune elements. Sets of aeolian dune strata are composed of grainflow and translatent wind‐ripple strata and are divided by a hierarchy of bounding surfaces originating from oblique migration of superimposed dunes over slipfaceless, sinuous‐crested parent bedforms, together with lee‐slope reactivation under non‐equilibrium flow conditions. Silty‐mudstone and sandstone interdune units are characterized by wind ripple‐, wavy‐ and subaqueous wave ripple‐laminae, desiccation cracks, mud flakes, raindrop imprints, load casts, flutes, intraformational rip‐up clasts and vertebrate and invertebrate footprint impressions and trackways. These units result from accumulation on a substrate that varied from dry‐ through damp‐ to wet‐surface conditions. Interdune ponds were flooded by either fluvial incursions or rises in groundwater table and were periodically subject to gradual desiccation and reflooding. Red silty‐mudstone beds of subaqueous origin pass laterally into horizontally laminated wind‐ripple beds indicating a progressive transition from wet‐ through damp‐ to dry‐surface conditions within a single interdune.     

The pattern of grainfall deposition in the lee of aeolian dunes

ABSTRACT
A simple model for the deposition pattern in the lee of aeolian dunes is presented that relies heavily upon a recently developed understanding of aeolian saltation. Grainfall deposition at any position on the lee face is the result of all saltation trajectories that leave any point on the surface of the dune upwind of the brink with sufficient initial velocity to travel the intervening distance. The deposition rate at any position on the lee slope is obtained by integrating over all combinations of initial position and required velocity, the velocity being weighted by its probability density.
The resulting calculated total deposition rate patterns show distinct maxima on the order of one to a few decimetres from the brink, beyond which deposition rates fall off roughly exponentially. An important length scale emerges that characterizes this decay with distance from the brink, the length increasing with wind velocity, and decreasing with grain diameter. It is shown that this length scale is on the order of one metre for typical grain size and wind conditions. That this is typically smaller than the length of the lee slope is what gives rise to the oversteepening and eventual avalanching of the lee sides of aeolian dunes. The position of a pivot point on the lee slope may be predicted, separating source regions from accumulation regions for grainflow avalanche deposits.
The calculated patterns provide not only a means for quantitative interpretation of active and fossil dune grainfall deposits, but they provide the initial geometry for grainflow avalanches. The initial failures should coincide with the steepest gradient in grainfall deposition, slightly downslope from the grainfall maximum.