Dynamics of plankton growth in the Barents Sea: model studies

1-D and 3-D models of plankton production in the Barents Sea are described and a few simulations presented. The 1-D model has two compartments for phytoplankton (diatoms and P. pouchelii) , three for limiting nutrients (nitrate, ammonia and silicic acid), and one compartment called "sinking phytoplankton". This model is coupled to a submodel of the important herbivores in the area and calculates the vertical distribution in a water column. Simulations with the 3-D model indicate a total annual primary production of 90-120g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in Atlantic Water and 20-50g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in Arctic Water, depending on the persistence of the ice cover during the summer.
The 3-D model takes current velocities, vertical mixing, ice cover, and temperature from a 3-D hydrodynamical model. Input data are atmospheric wind, solar radiation, and sensible as well as latent heat flux for the year 1983. The model produces a dynamic picture of the spatial distribution of phytoplankton throughout the spring and summer. Integrated primary production from March to July indicates that the most productive area is Spitsbcrgenbanken and the western entrance to the Barents Sea. i.e. on the northern slope of Tromsøflaket.     

Carbon dioxide and methane dynamics in a sub-Arctic peatland in northern Finland

We studied carbon dynamics on various surface parts of a highly patterned fen, typical in northern Finland, to examine the importance of different microsites to the areal carbon fluxes. The studies were carried out in June-September 1995 on a mesotrophic flark fen (an aapa mire) in Kaamanen (69°08'N, 27° 17'E). Wet flarks, moist lawns and dry strings accounted for 60%, 10% and 30% of the surface area, respectively. A static chamber technique was applied to measure the CH₄ exchange, the instantaneous net ecosystem exchange (NEE, transparent chamber) and the ecosystem respiration (R_tot' opaque chamber) in several microsites. The static chamber results were compared with those obtained by the eddy covariance technique. The mean daytime areal net ecosystem CO₂ exchange rate measurement in conditions where photosynthesis was light saturated (PAR>400 μmol m_-2 s_-1) varied during the measurement period from −59 mg CO₂-C m⁻²h⁻¹ (release) to 250 (uptake). The mean CH₄ emission during the measuring period was 78 mg CH_4-Cm⁻² d⁻¹ on the flarks, 68 mg on the lawn and 6.0 mg on the strings. The strings without shrubs (mainly Betula nana ) were in general net sources of CO₂, even during the middle of the growing season, whereas the lawns, flarks and also strings growing B. nana showed a daytime net uptake of CO₂. Areally integrated chamber results showed lower CO₂ and higher CH₄ fluxes than predicted from the eddy covariance measurements.     

Glaciers in Svalbard: mass balance, runoff and freshwater flux

Gain or loss of the freshwater stored in Svalbard glaciers has both global implications for sea level and, on a more local scale, impacts upon the hydrology of rivers and the freshwater flux to fjords. This paper gives an overview of the potential runoff from the Svalbard glaciers. The freshwater flux from basins of different scales is quantified. In small basins (A < 10 km²), the extra runoff due to the negative mass balance of the glaciers is related to the proportion of glacier cover and can at present yield more than 20% higher runoff than if the glaciers were in equilibrium with the present climate. This does not apply generally to the ice masses of Svalbard, which are mostly much closer to being in balance. The total surface runoff from Svalbard glaciers due to melting of snow and ice is roughly 25 ± 5 km³ a⁻¹, which corresponds to a specific runoff of 680 ± 140 mm a⁻¹, only slightly more than the annual snow accumulation. Calving of icebergs from Svalbard glaciers currently contributes significantly to the freshwater flux and is estimated to be 4 ± 1 km³ a⁻¹ or about 110 mm a⁻¹.     

A comparison of annual and seasonal carbon dioxide effluxes between sub-Arctic Sweden and High-Arctic Svalbard

Recent climate change predictions suggest altered patterns of winter precipitation across the Arctic. It has been suggested that the presence, timing and quantity of snow all affect microbial activity, thus influencing CO₂ production in soil. In this study annual and seasonal emissions of CO₂ were estimated in High-Arctic Adventdalen, Svalbard, and sub-Arctic Latnjajaure, Sweden, using a new trace gas-based method to track real-time diffusion rates through the snow. Summer measurements from snow-free soils were made using a chamber-based method. Measurements were obtained from different snow regimes in order to evaluate the effect of snow depth on winter CO₂ effluxes. Total annual emissions of CO₂ from the sub-Arctic site (0.662–1.487 kg CO₂ m^–2 yr^–1) were found to be more than double the emissions from the High-Arctic site (0.369–0.591 kg CO₂ m^–2 yr^–1). There were no significant differences in winter effluxes between snow regimes or vegetation types, indicating that spatial variability in winter soil CO₂ effluxes are not directly linked to snow cover thickness or soil temperatures. Total winter emissions (0.004–0.248 kg CO₂ m^–2) were found to be in the lower range of those previously described in the literature. Winter emissions varied in their contribution to total annual production between 1 and 18%. Artificial snow drifts shortened the snow-free period by 2 weeks and decreased the annual CO₂ emission by up to 20%. This study suggests that future shifts in vegetation zones may increase soil respiration from Arctic tundra regions.     

222Rn and 226Ra: indicators of sea-ice effects on air-sea gas exchange

²²² Rn and ²²⁶Ra distributions beneath the sea ice of the Barents Sea revealed that ice cover has varied effects on air-sea gas exchange. Twice, once in late summer and once in late winter, seawater samples from the top meter below drill holes had ²²²Rn activities that were not lower than their ^226,Ra activities, indicating the existence of secular equilibrium and a negligible net exchange of ²²²Rn and other gases with the atmosphere. However, seawater in the upper 20-85 m usually exhibited at least some ²²²Rn depletion; ²²²Rn-to-²²⁶Ra activity ratios tended to have 'ice-free' values (0.3-0.9) in the summer and values between 0.9 and 1.0 in the winter. Integrated ²²²Rn depletions and piston velocities in both seasons typically fell in the lower 25% of the ranges for ice-free seawater, suggesting that a moderate but far from total reduction in gas exchange is normally caused by ice cover and/or meltwater. The results demonstrate that sea-ice interference with the oceanic uptake of atmospheric gases such as CO, is not well understood and needs further investigation.     

The importance of winter in annual ecosystem respiration in the High Arctic: effects of snow depth in two vegetation types

Winter respiration in snow-covered ecosystems strongly influences annual carbon cycling, underlining the importance of processes related to the timing and quantity of snow. Fences were used to increase snow depth from 30 to 150 cm, and impacts on respiration were investigated in heath and mesic meadow, two common vegetation types in Svalbard. We manually measured ecosystem respiration from July 2007 to July 2008 at a temporal resolution greater than previously achieved in the High Arctic (campaigns: summer, eight; autumn, six; winter, 17; spring, nine). Moisture contents of unfrozen soil and soil temperatures throughout the year were also recorded. The increased snow depth resulted in significantly higher winter soil temperatures and increased ecosystem respiration. A temperature–efflux model explained most of the variation of observed effluxes: meadows, 94 (controls) and 93% (fences); heaths, 84 and 77%, respectively. Snow fences increased the total non-growing season efflux from 70 to 92 (heaths) and from 68 to 125 g CO₂-C m⁻² (meadows). The non-growing season contributed to 56 (heaths) and 42% (meadows) of the total annual carbon respired. This proportion increased with deeper snow to 64% in both vegetation types. Summer respiration rates were unaffected by snow fences, but the total growing season respiration was lower behind fences because of the considerably delayed snowmelt. Meadows had higher summer respiration rates than heaths. In addition, non-steady state CO₂ effluxes were measured as bursts lasting several days during spring soil thawing, and when ice layers were broken to carry out winter efflux measurements.     

Estimation of the annual primary production of the lichen Cetrariella delisei in a glacier foreland in the High Arctic, Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard

The fruticose lichen Cetrariella delisei is among the dominant lichen species in the deglaciated High Arctic areas of Svalbard. As part of a study of carbon cycling in the High Arctic, we aimed to estimate the primary production of lichen in a deglaciated area in Ny-Ålesund, Svalbard (79° N), by examining the effects of abiotic factors on the net photosynthesis ( Pn ) and dark respiration ( R ) rates of C. delisei . Experiments were conducted in the snow-free season of 2000 using an open-flow gas exchange system with an infrared gas analyser. Positive photosynthetic activities were observed on rainy days or soon after rainfall when the thallus water content was high, whereas photosynthetic activities dropped below the detectable limit on clear days because of the low thallus water content. Under a sufficiently high thallus water content and close to light saturation, Pn was nearly constant over a wide temperature range of 4–20 °C, while R increased with increasing temperature. We constructed a model for estimating the net primary production ( NPP ) of lichen based on the relationships between abiotic factors and the CO₂ exchange rate. The mean, minimum and maximum NPP values in the snow-free season, estimated using meteorological data obtained from 1995–2003, were 5.1, 1.0 and 8.4 g dry wt. m⁻² snow-free season⁻¹, respectively. These results suggest that NPP is highly variable and the contribution of lichen to carbon input is small compared with that of vascular plants and mosses in the study site.     

Modeling synthetic aperture radar (SAR) scattering from a seasonally varying snow-covered sea ice volume at 5.3 and 9.25 GHz

A series of sensitivity analyses using dielectric, mixture and microwave scattering models is presented. Data from the Seasonal Sea Ice Monitoring and Modeling Site (SIMMS) in 1990 and 1991 are used to initialize the models. The objective of the research is to investigate the role of various geophysical and electrical properties in specifying the total relative scattering cross section (ρ') of snow covered first-year sea ice during the spring period.
The seasonal transition period from the Winter SAR scattering season to Early Melt was shown to signal a transition in dielectric properties which caused the snow volume to become a factor in the microwave scattering process. The effect of the thermal insulation of a snow cover on sea ice was shown to be significant for both ε' and ε'. Higher atmospheric temperatures caused proportionally greater changes in the dielectric properties of the sea ice at the base of the snow cover. Model ρ⁰ was computed for a range of sensor, sensor-earth geometry, and geophysical properties. In the Winter season the surface roughness terms (o_hand L) were shown to have a significant impact on ρ⁰ when the ice surface was the primary scattering mechanism. Once the snow cover began to warm and water was available in a liquid phase, the ice surface became masked because of the decrease in microwave penetration depths. During this period the water volume variable dominated ρ⁰, both from its impact on ρ_v⁰, and due to its control over the dielectric mismatch created at the air/snow interface.     

Primary production of the northern Barents Sea

The majority of the arctic waters are only seasonally ice covered; the northern Barents Sea, where freezing starts at 80 to 81°N in September, is one such area. In March, the ice cover reaches its greatest extension (74-75°N). Melting is particularly rapid in June and July, and by August the Barents Sea may be ice free. The pelagic productive season is rather short, 3 to 3.5 months in the northern part of the Barents Sea (north of the Polar Front, 75°N), and is able to sustain an open water production during only half of this time when a substantial part of the area is free of ice. Ice algal production starts in March and terminates during the rapid melting season in June and July, thus equalling the pelagic production season in duration.
This paper presents the first in situ measurements of both pelagic and ice-related production in the northern Barents Sea: pelagic production in summer after melting has started and more open water has become accessible, and ice production in spring before the ice cover melts. Judged by the developmental stage of the plankton populations, the northern Barents Sea consists of several sub-areas with different phytoplankton situations. Estimates of both daily and annual carbon production have been based on in situ measurements. Although there are few sampling stations (6 phytoplankton stations and 8 ice-algae stations), the measurements represent both pelagic bloom and non-bloom conditions and ice algal day and night production. The annual production in ice was estimated to 5.3 g Cm^-2, compared to the pelagic production of 25 to 30 g Cm^-2 south of Kvitøya and 12 to 15 g Cm^-2 further north. According to these estimates ice production thus constitutes 16% to 22% of the total primary production of the northern Barents Sea, depending on the extent of ice-free areas.     

Distribution of Chemical Constituents in Superimposed Ice from Austre Brøggerbreen, Spitsbergen

10 m and 2.3 m ice cores were obtained on Austre Brøggerbreen, Spitsbergen in Svalbard (78°53 ' N, 11°56 ' E, 450 m a.s.l.) in September 1994 and in March 1995, respectively. Stratigraphy, bulk density, pH, electrical conductivity, and major ions were obtained from the core samples.
The chemical effect of meltwater percolation through snow/ice is examined. Good correlation between Cl⁻ and Na⁺ was obtained. The ratio of Cl⁻ to Na⁺ was 1.14 which was nearly the same value as in bulk sea water. However, the variation of Cl⁻/Na⁺ shows that higher ratio occured in the bubble-free ice. Furthermore the Cl⁻ ions remain in higher concentration than SO ₄ ²⁻ or Na⁺ ions.     

2011年初冬南极普里兹湾冰间湖区上层水体结构演化研究

利用5头活动于南极普里兹湾的象海豹携带的CTD观测获得的2011年3—6月埃默里冰架前缘冰间湖区域海水温盐剖面数据, 研究了该海域上层水体结构在初冬的演化过程。结果显示, 可将该演化过程分为三个阶段：第一阶段海水温度从层化到均匀, 3月下旬次表层仍维持暖水特征, 随着表层海水冷却作用, 次表层暖水逐渐消失, 上下水体温度趋于均匀并接近冰点, 温度剖面从“逆温型”演变到“均匀型”; 第二阶段海水盐度从层化到上下均匀, 也就是从“均匀型”演变到“渐变型”, 海水结冰析盐过程使上层海水盐度增加, 增强垂直对流混合, 上下层盐度达到均匀; 第三阶段冷却结冰持续, 海水盐度继续增大, 形成盐度随深度减小, 温度随深度增大的“渐变型”结构。根据温盐剖面数据计算三个阶段的海-气之间的热通量分别是－90.93、－82.20和－43.44 Wm^-2。考虑海水盐分的增加主要源于海冰形成, 由此推算三个阶段内平均的海冰形成速率分别是5.4、4.9和2.5 cm d^-1。在南极初冬时期, 随着海水上层低温高盐化演变持续, 海水向大气释放的热通量逐渐减少, 海冰形成速率也呈减少趋势。     

南北极海冰变化及其影响因素的对比分析

海冰是海洋-大气交互系统的重要组成部分,与全球气候系统间存在灵敏的响应和反馈机制。本文选用欧洲空间局发布的1992—2008年海冰密集度数据分析了南北极海冰在时间和空间上的变化规律与趋势,并结合由美国环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction,NCEP)和美国大气研究中心(National Center for Atmospheric Research, NCAR)联合制作的NCEP/NCAR气温数据和ENSO指数探讨了南北极海冰变化的影响因素。结果表明,北极海冰面积呈明显的减少趋势,其中夏季海冰最小月的减少更快。北冰洋中央海盆区、巴伦支海、喀拉海、巴芬湾和拉布拉多海的减少最明显。南极海冰面积呈微弱增加趋势,罗斯海、太平洋扇区和大西洋扇区的海冰增加。北极海冰面积与气温有显著的滞后1个月的负相关关系(P0.01)。北极升温显著,北冰洋中央海盆区、喀拉海、巴伦支海、巴芬湾和楚科奇海升温趋势最大,海冰减少很明显。南极在南大西洋、南太平洋呈降温趋势,海冰增加。北极海冰减少与39个月之后ONI的下降、40个月之后SOI的上升密切相关;南极海冰增加与7个月之后ONI的下降、6个月之后SOI的上升存在很好的响应关系。南北极海冰变化与三次ENSO的强暖与强冷事件有很好的对应关系。     

Cold-season soil respiration in response to grazing and warming in High-Arctic Svalbard

The influence of goose grazing intensity and open-topped chambers (OTCs) on near-surface quantities and qualities of soil organic carbon (SOC) was evaluated in wet and mesic ecosystems in Svalbard. This study followed up a field experiment carried out in 2003–05 (part of the project Fragility of Arctic Goose Habitat: Impacts of Land Use, Conservation and Elevated Temperatures). New measurements of soil CO₂ effluxes, temperatures and water contents were regularly made from July to November 2007. SOC stocks were quantified, and the reactivity and composition measured by basal soil respiration (BSR) and solid-state ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Results reveal variations in soil carbon cycling, with significant seasonal trends controlled by temperature, water content and snow. Experimental warming (OTCs) increased near-surface temperatures in the growing season, resulting in significantly higher CO₂ effluxes. Different grazing intensities had no significant effects on observed soil respiration, but BSR rates at the mesic site (13–23 µg CO₂ g soil-C⁻¹ h⁻¹) were highest with moderate grazing and lowest in the absence of grazing. A limited effect of grazing on microbial respiration is consistent with a lack of significant differences in SOC quantity and quality. NMR data show that the composition of A-horizon SOC is dominated by O-N-alkyl C and alkyl C groups, and less by carboxyl C and aromatic C groups: but again no marked variation in response to grazing was evident. It can be concluded that two years after a goose grazing experiment, SOC cycling was less than the natural variation within contrasting vegetation types.     

The tidal dynamics of the Irish and Celtic Seas

Summary. Current meter data collected over periods of more than 14 day from the Irish and Celtic Seas are harmonically analysed and presented in maps of tidal stream information. Making use of the analysed current data, and by constructing time series of frictional and inertial stresses which are also harmonically analysed, harmonic constituents of the surface tidal slopes at current meter stations are obtained. Using these with data collected from offshore tide gauges, and in conjunction with coastal tide data, cotidal maps are drawn with some confidence for M ₂, S ₂, O ₁ and K ₁, the M ₂ chart resolving the discrepancy which exists between the different charts of the Celtic Sea already produced. Cotidal maps for M ₃ and M ₄ are also presented.
The mean over a tidal cycle of the energy flux for M ₂, S ₂ and O ₁ is also presented in the form of the total energy flux in these constituents which crosses different sectional lines. A flux of 44 × 10⁶ kW is observed to enter the Celtic Sea from the Atlantic and this is compared with previous estimates. An energy budget is also performed for M ₂, including all the effects of astronomical forcing and Earth tides to enable comparison to be made between the true energy inflow and the estimated frictional dissipation. Finally, comparison is made between the mean of the instantaneous energy flux and the sum of the energy fluxes associated with the major harmonics.     

Regional variations of heat flow differences with depth in Alberta, Canada

Summary. Differences between estimated average heat flow values for the Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations ( Q ₁) and estimated average heat flow values for the Palaeozoic formations below the erosional unconformity ( Q ₂) are calculated for the Alberta part of the western Canadian sedimentary basin. Significant heat flow differences exist for these two intervals and the map of Δ Q = Q ₁– Q ₂ shows that Q ₂ is generally greater than Q ₁ in the western and south-western part of Alberta, while in the northern part of the province Q ₂ is generally less than Q ₁. The regional variations of Δ Q are large, with standard deviation of 26 mW m⁻² and average value –13.5 mW m⁻². A regional trend of Δ Q correlates with topographic relief and the hydraulic head variations in the basin. It is shown that there is a heat flow increase with depth in water recharge areas and a decrease in heat flow with depth in the low topographic elevation water discharge areas when comparing the average heat flow in Mesozoic + Cenozoic and Palaeozoic formations.     

铵态氮沉降对内蒙古呼伦贝尔草地CO_2通量的影响（英文）

大气氮沉降可能会影响陆地生态系统的碳通量。本文主要目的是探讨在氮素缺乏的草地生态系统中,氮素添加是否会增加CO2通量。本研究于2008和2009生长季进行,采用静态箱-气相色谱法研究CO2通量对氮沉降增加的响应。结果表明,2年的氮素添加并没有显著影响土壤NH4+含量,NO3-含量只是在2009年生长季后期有所增加。高氮处理增加了CO2通量,而低氮处理在2008年抑制了CO2通量,2009年后期增加了CO2通量。而且氮素添加显著增加了地上生物量和根系的生物量。CO2通量与土壤水分、土壤温度的关系并没有因为氮素的添加而改变,但是氮素添加增加了CO2通量对土壤水分和土壤温度的敏感性。这些结果表明,在未来大气氮沉降增加的背景下,呼伦贝尔草甸草原CO2通量有可能会增加。     

双扩散在南极文森湾海域热盐结构演变中的作用

利用22头象海豹携带的CTD观测到的2012年3—4月南极文森湾中西部海域的海水温盐剖面数据,研究了双扩散效应在海水热盐演变过程中的作用。结果显示,该海域双扩散效应显著,其中"扩散对流"作用在水柱中所占比例超过50%,并普遍存在于500—800 dbar深度的深层水中;"盐指对流"作用在水柱中所占比例不超过10%,存在于300—500 dbar的中层水中;随着时间进入南极冬季,海水结冰盐析过程会使水体中重力不稳定状态加剧。"扩散对流"会产生向上的热通量和盐度通量,热通量大约在0.02—0.5 W·m~(–2),盐度通量平均在10–8 m·s~(–1)左右;"盐指对流"则会产生向下的热通量和盐度通量,平均热通量约为–0.5 W·m~(–2),平均盐度通量约为–10–8 m·s~(–1)。在结冰初期,文森湾陆架海域的海表结冰过程对低温高盐水体的产生具有补充作用,进而通过扩散对流作用使得高密度陆架水(DSW)在水体内部得到补充生长与积累。因此,双扩散作用对于该海域高密陆架水的形成有不可忽视的贡献。     

Oxygen consumption in Macrotrachela musculosa and Trichotria truncata (Rotatoria) from the High Arctic

Oxygen consumption by rotifers Macrotrachela musculosa and Trichotria truncata from Spitsbergen tundra (77°N) was measured using the method of Cartesian divers. The metabolic rate of M. musculosa was: 0.205 10⁻³mm³ 0₂ per g 10⁻⁶ per hour at 2°C, 0.201 10⁻⁶mm³ at 6°C and 0.616 10⁻³mm³ 0₂ per g 10⁻⁶ per hour at 10°C. The metabolic rate of Trichotria truncata at 6° was 0.103 10⁻³mm³ per g 10⁻⁶ per hour. The relation between body weight and oxygen consumption by M. musculosa at 2°C is expressed with the equation R = 0.18W^0.67, with R – oxygen consumption in mm³10⁻³ per individual per hour and W – wet weight of an animal in g 10⁻⁶.     

Contemporary and Post-glacial Rates of Aeolian Deposition in the Coast Mountains of British Columbia, Canada

Contemporary and post-glacial rates of aeolian deposition are determined for three small catchments that straddle the alpine-subalpine ecotone in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains of British Columbia. From process measurement over a single year, the mean annual regional (allochthonous) rate of aeolian deposition for the catchments is estimated to be approximately 11 g m⁻². The average rate of annual deposition over the post-glacial period is calculated from the soil profiles to be c . 6 g m⁻², although fallout rates are likely to have varied significantly over the Holocene epoch due to changes in climate and catchment conditions. It would appear that the vegetated ground strata in these catchments are net receivers of aeolian dust fallout. Consequently, many of the soils are cumulic in nature and protect the bedrock in these catchments from subaerial weathering. These results have implications for sediment transfers in alpine and sub-alpine environments in southwestern British Columbia.     

Prey composition and feeding rate of Sagitta elegans var. arctica (chaetognatha) in the Barents Sea in early summer

Sagitta elegans var. arctica , the dominant and locally abundant chaetognath in the Barents sea, was collected from the upper 50 m in Arctic water masses during an ice edge bloom in early summer 1983. In situ sampling was made along a transect at discrete depths with a 375 μm mesh net mounted on a plankton pump. Prey composition and feeding rate were estimated from gut content analyses on preserved specimens combined with data on digestion times from previous studies. No diel variations were found in feeding activity. The diet reflected the composition of available prey in the zooplankton and consisted mainly of nauplii, small copepods (early stages of Calanus, Pseudocalanus, Oithona ) and appendicularians. Prey usually occurred as a single item in the gut.
Mean prey body width related to chaetognath head width yielded a power curve, with a large amount of scatter, showing that chaetognaths in the Barents Sea can use a wide spectrum of prey sizes. Similarly, maximum prey body width was related to chaetognath head width as a power curve, reflecting the existence of an upper prey size limitation due to the chaetognath mouth size. The highest abundance of S. elegans (5 specimens m⁻³), and the most intense feeding activity, were found within or beneath the maximum zooplankton biomass. Further, distribution and feeding were affected by light intensity, salinity, and the population structure of 5. elegans var. arctica.
Estimated feeding rates ranged between 0.30 and 1.05 prey items per chaetognath day⁻¹. This corresponds to an ingestion of 8-54 μg AFDW day⁻¹, and a consumption of 0.08–0.22% of the zooplankton standing stock day⁻¹. From these rates, the calculated yearly ingestion by S. elegans var. arctica was 3% of the annually secondary production.