Nations as economic regions

Nations are first of all political regions. Their significance as economic regions derives from the political regulation of economic affairs. Never have such regulations been more pervasive, complex, and economically disruptive than in the 20th century. Politicians seek to extend their power over the subjects whom they govern as well as the power of their nation over other nations. In liberal democratic nations, politicians frequently respond to appeals for protection from economic hardship, thereby courting the favor of those whom they protect. In nations with centrally planned economies, the power of politicians rests on the implementation of ideological doctrines incompatible with open national borders. Politicians of any nation, reluctant to use the military arsenal at their command for fear that an armed conflict may escalate into a nuclear holocaust, may resort to economic warfare instead. All such policies contribute to the economically disruptive nature of national boundaries.     

四川稻城海子山方枝柏树轮宽度与气候因子的响应关系研究

对四川稻城县海子山高原上的方枝柏进行树芯采集,经交叉定年后建立林线上限位置的方枝柏树轮宽度年表。标准化年表与气象资料的响应分析结果揭示了该地区树木生长主要受当年生长季前期温度条件的控制。轮宽指数与前一年9月到当年2月的平均气温呈显著正相关（R=0.56,P<0.01）。由此重建了该地区1850—2019年这170 a的前一年9月到当年2月平均气温的变化,转换函数方差解释量31.7%。重建结果与邻近地区树轮记录的温度变化具有较好的一致性。重建序列显示工业革命以来,研究区经历较冷的时期有：1870—1890年和1960—1980年;较暖的时期有：1884—1892年、1919—1925年、1940—1960年以及1980—2019年。1940—1960年是20世纪最暖的时期,20世纪60年代后温度呈现下降趋势,1980年开始气温保持持续升高,2010年之后气温有小幅下降。重建气温序列与太阳黑子数变化和北大西洋多年代际涛动AMO有较强的响应,揭示了太阳活动、海温等因子可能对该区温度变化产生重要影响。     

淮河流域近500年洪旱事件演变特征分析

为了认识淮河流域过去500年洪旱事件发生规律并鉴别当前的洪旱情势,收集并对比分析了流域实测降雨资料、重建历史雨季降雨资料、历史旱涝等级资料、历史洪旱文献记录和历史调查洪水资料等多源洪旱灾害数据。以重建历史雨季降雨资料和历史旱涝等级资料为主要依据,通过滑动平均、频率计算、小波分析和突变检验等方法,分析流域过去500年洪水干旱时空分布特征和演变规律。结果表明,17世纪淮河流域洪旱灾害最严重,但20世纪极端洪旱事件发生频次最多。淮河流域洪旱事件存在40年左右的稳定长周期,主周期从18世纪的15~20年逐渐减少到19世纪的5年周期,近20年来出现2~3年的主周期,洪旱灾害事件呈增加趋势,流域社会经济发展面临着严峻的洪旱灾害威胁。     

Non-linear diffusion: Bison on the hoof and on the rail in the United States

This paper puts forth a non-linear, post-structural conception of geographical diffusion by utilizing the example of American bison. In doing so, this approach stands in contrast to canonical theories of diffusion (notably neoclassical economics and political economy), which portray diffusion as a steady progression of development. In reviewing the history of bison diffusion during the 20th century, the impact of several factors is evident. These include environmental, cultural, economic, governmental, health and material factors. Each of these variables has taken several distinct forms, thereby enlarging the number of actors involved in the species’ redistribution. The impact of each variable has waxed and waned over the years. Consequently, a series of heterogeneous networks has formed, which have simultaneously undercut the importance of certain variables and formed the basis for new channels of bison diffusion. The non-linear nature of diffusion emerges from the different temporalities of these networks. In an alternating fashion, this process of network-building has guided bison onto public, private, and tribal lands.     

Summer precipitation for the England and Wales region, 1201–2000 ce,from stable oxygen isotopes in oak tree rings

Oxygen isotope ratios from oak tree rings are used to extend the May–August precipitation totals of the England and Wales precipitation series back to 1201 ce. The agreement between instrumental and reconstructed values is unusually strong, with more than half of the variance explained and standard verification tests passed. The stability of this relationship is confirmed using split-period calibration and verification. This allows the reconstruction to be variance-scaled to the full length of the instrumental series back to 1766. Direct comparison with historical reports of very wet and dry summers show good agreement. Near-constant replication, with a minimum of 10 timbers sourced from historic buildings across central southern England ensures signal strength does not change over time. Summers during the late 20th century appear anomalously dry and those of the 21st century very close to the pre-20th century average with no evidence in the record of prolonged ‘megadroughts’ across England and Wales.     

The first field-based descriptions of pumping-induced saltwater intrusion and upconing

Development of the ideas about the equilibrium between freshwater and saline water has received considerable attention in the literature, but little has been written so far about the earliest scientific works about well salinization. Based on a review of the literature from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century, this historical note explores how insights into groundwater abstraction and saltwater intrusion developed, and examples of the earliest field studies are provided. Fundamental research was driven by the need for increasing water supply, but the progress of science did not lead to sustainable management practices everywhere. Research outcomes were shared between scientists of different countries, marking the beginning of coastal hydrogeology as a scientific specialization in the first decade of the 20th century.     

Population distribution and standard of living in Iceland

The Vikings and other settlers of Iceland immigrated during the 10th century not only for political reasons but also because they were seeking more spacious lands and thus a better standard of living. They found what they were searching for, and they and their descendants for some hundreds of years did live a relatively prosperous life. Eventually in the 15th century they suffered a series of setbacks. Poor living conditions were nothing unusual for the Icelanders in late medieval Europe, but this coupled with both the cool climate and the lack of timber for housing and heating, and for boat and shipbuilding made their lot an especially hard one. The 18th century was the darkest one in Icelandic history, and those acquainted with the problems doubted that the little nation could survive. But then, beginning in the 19th century and rapidly increasing in the 20th century, the urban evolution came about and brought with it a measure of progress. As a result, most Icelanders now live in towns, with over fifty percent living in Reykjavik and its environs. The effects of rural migration is one problem that persists in spite of the fact that the average income is now similar in most areas.     

Petrographic investigations in cemeteries in Dresden: a scientific view on the tombstone inventory including historic and cultural aspects

Cemeteries give evidence for a continuous change in sepulchral culture and provide insights into the application of characteristical rock materials used for tombstones during different times. Four selected cemeteries in Dresden (the Eliasfriedhof/Elias Cemetery, the Trinitatisfriedhof/Trinity Cemetery, the Johannisfriedhof/Johannis Cemetery, and the Städtischer Urnenhain/Municipal Urn Grove), which are of considerable cultural and historical importance, have been investigated within an ongoing mapping project. First results of this project focussing on the tombstone inventory of the mentioned graveyards and thus the use of building and decoration stones therein between 1680 and 1945 are presented in this paper. It can be demonstrated that the choice, variety, and application of rock material depends on the infrastructure and transport possibilities, but is also strongly influenced by sepulchral cultural trends and the prevailing zeitgeist. Until the middle of the 19th century, nearly solely Elbe sandstone (from the area of the Elbsandsteingebirge/Elbe sandstone mountains), that was transported on the Elbe river by ship, is found as rock material for tombstones in Dresden cemeteries. Rapid construction and development of the railway network starting around 1840 improved the availability, at first, of regional rock material (e.g., from the Lausitz/Lusatia) and, later on, from about 1880, of national and international—especially European—rock material (e.g., from Franken/Franconia, France, Scandinavia). Furthermore, the Friedhofsreformbewegung/cemetery reform movement at the beginning of the 20th century, with its significant effect on the selection of rock types used for tombstones, marks another historical breakthrough.     

20世纪地球物理学的重要成就和21世纪的发展前沿

20世纪是地球物理学取得辉煌成就的重要历史时期。在这关键性的百年里实施了一系列大型且具全球性的研究计划。 2 1世纪必将在对地球本体的认识和解决水资源、矿产资源、自然灾害和环境 (包括空间环境 )方面继续作出新的重大贡献。只有深入研究地球内部物质与能量的交换 ,不同圈层的耦合及其深部动力过程才能深入探索地球系统的发展。为此 ,文中讨论三方面的问题 :(1)地球物理学的发展进程及其战略意义 ;(2 ) 2 0世纪地球物理学领域主要的重大成就 ;(3) 2 1世纪上、中叶地球物理学的发展前沿和导向。     

20世纪地质科学学科体系的发展与演变——根据地质论文统计分析

地质科学100年的发展折射了20世纪经济发展和社会进步的曲折过程，地质学科的演化反映了工业化对矿产资源的依存度和社会进步对地质学科布局的深刻影响。通过对20世纪100年世界地质科学论文的统计、分析和综合，从计量的角度获得了反映地质科学及其各学科发展和演化的轨迹，包括：①见证了地质科学的发展动力从“供给驱动型”向“需求驱动型”的转变；②记录了工业化过程中对矿产资源的需求对地质科学发展和演变的影响；③反映了过去100年重大历史事件对地质科学发展的影响；④体现了技术进步是地质科学发展的革命性推动力；⑤揭示了我国与发达国家地质科学发展的差距。运用学术论文定量分析地质科学长周期发展规律，用数据反映地质学科的百年兴衰，是研究地质科学发展战略的新思路、新方法。     

历史文献记载的1757—1774年天山北麓东部地区温度升高

通过整理历史文献中有关天山北麓东部地区18世纪中后期的相关记载,发现1757—1774年的历史文献记载了巴里坤作物物候和霜雪事件,根据物候学原理,确认1757—1774年巴里坤存在有温度升高的现象。并根据同时期历史文献中乌鲁木齐的冷暖感应记载,认为1757—1774年的温度升高发生在整个天山北麓地区。结合已有的树木年轮研究成果,并根据当时的人文社会背景进行分析,进而从更宏大的时空尺度上认识此次温度升高在历史文献记载中的具体内涵,认为历史文献记载的1757—1774年温度升高是相对于18世纪10—20年代,而非30—50年代。根据历史文献重建温度变化,必须结合文献形成的历史背景,因为同时期的人文社会背景,会影响到历史文献记载的可靠性。     

我国“中世纪温暖期”气候的初步推断

根据历史文献中有关喜暖的亚热带作物苧麻、柑桔种植地点记录认为,13世纪中叶是一个典型的气候温暖期。由现代的作物种植气候区划资料推断,13世纪中叶我国中部地区年平均气温高于现代0.9—1.0℃,1月平均气温高于现代0.6℃以上,极端最低气温的多年平均值高于现代3.5℃。新近得出的南宋时代杭州春季终雪日期的资料比原先公布的日期一般提早7天。这项新资料的分析表明,南宋时代春季气温至少不低于现代,原先的有关南宋寒冷期的论断尚须更多的新资料进一步研讨。     

地球物理学的回顾与展望

简要回顾了 2 0世纪地球物理学的发展。指出 2 0世纪是地球物理学发展的重要历史阶段 ,在此期间实施的一系列大型的全球性的研究计划深化了人类对地球本体的认识 ,提供了有关资源、能源、灾害和环境的形成、分布与发展的深层过程和空间信息 ,扩大了人类对地球整体研究的视野 ,激励了对空间和地球 (包括大陆和海洋 )以及生态环境之间耦合的研究 ,并在造福人类的过程中取得了辉煌的成就。展望了 2 1世纪地球物理学的发展 ,认为 2 1世纪的地球物理学必将担负起地球科学中一系列重大科学问题的先导角色。在深化对地球本体和日地空间及其相互作用的认识 ,量化地球内部各圈的耦合和深部物质状态及物质组成的错综组构 ,解决水、资源、环境 (包括空间资源环境 )等问题中做出贡献。     

树轮气候学中分异现象的研究进展

树轮气候学研究发现,随着全球气候变暖的加剧,20世纪后半期以来,树木生长对气候变化的响应关系发生了改变,出现了树轮-气候响应关系不稳定、树木生长趋势分异等现象(divergence phenomenon).分异现象的发现,对传统树轮重建方法和结果提出了挑战,同时对研究全球碳循环、碳储量估测也有重要影响.分析和总结前人的...     

20世纪西北地区降水量变化特征

利用英国东安哥拉大学气候研究中心(CRU)的Hulme最新的1900-1998年的全球降水量资料,分析了20世纪西北地区降水量的变化特征.结果表明,20世纪西北地区降水量处于下降通道中,后期略有回升;西北地区东部和西部降水量的年代际变化有相反的趋势;20世纪后期西北地区中西部降水量有明显的增多趋势,东部降水量持续偏少,干旱连年发生.     

Overcoming disciplinary solitude: The archaeology and geology of native copper in Eastern North America

Although native copper has attracted the scholarly attention of both geologists and archaeologists since the middle of the 19th century, it is only recently that native copper studies have benefited from interdisciplinary research. This history of disciplinary solitude can be traced to the professionalization of the two fields in the early 20th century, an era in which crossdisciplinary communication began to wane. The effects of this phenomena resulted in the development of a model of aboriginal native copper procurement by archaeologists that did not take into account the geological literature, which had long identified numerous—rather than a single—source of native copper in North America. In this article, the author discusses how this disciplinary solitude developed and how it resulted in the creation of a dominant model for native copper procurement that constrained our understanding of aboriginal lifeways for generations. The author also considers how increasing collaboration between geologists and archaeologists since the 1970s has led to the reevaluation of an old model of native copper procurement that has been uncritically accepted by most archaeologists for over a century and a half. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

21世纪长春市城市供水水源问题

长春市是一个水资源比较贫乏的大城市,水资源一直是困扰该市社会经济发展的主要问题。本文概述了长春市半个多世纪以来城市供水水源随着城市需水量增长而变化的历史过程,预测了21世纪前期城市的需水量,提出了解决城市供水水源的方向,对新世纪城市的供水水源与区域供水规划间的关系、水资源管理政策与法规、水资源分配原则、供水水源投资与经营等问题提出了新的思路和见解。     

A 1286‐year hydro‐climate reconstruction for the Balkan Peninsula

We present a June–July drought reconstruction based on the standardized precipitation index (SPI) for the Balkan Peninsula over the period 730–2015 CE. The reconstruction is developed using a composite Pinus heldreichii tree‐ring width chronology, from a high‐elevation network of eight sites in the Pindus Mountains in northwest Greece, composed of living trees and relict wood. The dataset includes the ring width series of Europe's currently oldest known living tree, dendrochronologically dated to be more than 1075 years old. The spatial coverage of the reconstruction is improved by using an averaged gridded SPI data target derived from a response field that is located north of the study region. Justification for this approach includes the remoteness of instrumental data, the spatial variability of precipitation and synoptic scale circulation patterns. Over the past 1286 years, there have been 51 dry and 43 pluvial events. The driest year during the 1286‐year‐long period was 1660 and the wettest year was 1482. Comparison with shorter reconstructions and documentary evidence validates the new reconstruction, and provides additional insight into socioeconomic impacts and spatial patterns of extreme events. Fifty‐nine of 72 previously undescribed extremes occurred prior to the 17th century. The new reconstruction reveals long‐term changes in the number of extremes, including substantially fewer drought and pluvial events in the 20th century. Additional tests on the long‐term effects of age structure, replication and covariance changes support the heteroscedastic nature of the reconstructed hydro‐climatic extremes.