Causes of geothermal fields and characteristics of ground temperature fields in China

There are many arguments on energy sources and main controlling factors of geothermal fields, so a systematic study on the distribution of ground temperature fields shall be necessary. In this paper the thermal conduction forward method of geothermal field is used to simulate cooling rate of abnormal heat sources and heat transfer of the paleo-uplift model. Combined with a large number of geothermal field exploration cases and oil exploration well temperature curves of domestic and foreign, the following conclusions are drawn:(1) According to the magmatic activity time, the magmatism activities are divided into two categories: Magma active areas(activity time 500 000 years) and weak/magma inactive areas(activity time 500 000 years). The latter has a fast cooling rate(the cooling time of the magma pocket buried around 10 km is less than 200 000 years) after it has intruded into the shallow layer and it has no direct contribution to modern geothermal fields;(2) China belongs to a weak/magma inactive area such as Tengchong region and Qinghai-Tibet region because the chronological data of these regions show that its magma activity time is more than 500 000 years;(3) The temperature of most geothermal fields can be obviously divided into three segments in the vertical direction: A high geothermal gradient segment(Segment H) at the surface, then a low geothermal gradient segment(Segment L) at a secondary depth, and finally a lower temperature segment(Segment D) at a deeper depth. The temperature isoline presents a mirror reflection relation on the temperature profile, indicating that geothermal field is dominated by heat conduction, rather than having an abnormally high temperature "heat source" to provide heat;(4) Near-surface(0-5 km) materials' lateral heterogeneity caused by tectonic movement shall probably be the main controlling factor of ground temperature fields.     

地热田热量来源及形成主控因素

地热能越来越受到重视,但地热田的形成机制和热量的来源仍存在争议,多数学者认为岩浆囊可以为地热田直接供热.以二维热传导正演模拟为手段得出,盖层是形成地热田的必要条件;在浅部存在高热传导层时,地温剖面会出现镜像倒影形态,温度在垂向上分为高梯度段、低梯度段和低温段,侵位较浅（< 10 km）的岩浆囊散热和进入热平衡时间小于20~50万a.结合大量地热田温度资料分析认为,地热田的热量不是因为存在异常热源（如岩浆囊）,而是来源于正常的基底热流.当深部热量传递到地表时,由于近地表物质的热传导能力的差异引起温度场发生变化,即地热田之下存在高热传导层快速地将基底热量传递到浅层而形成异常高温.      

岩浆热场：它的基本特征及其与地热场的区别

"岩浆热场"指的是由岩浆引发的瞬间热场。热场的热主要来自未固结的岩浆,岩浆加热了围岩,使下地壳、中地壳和上地壳的下部在一个短暂的时间内保持一种高热状态。岩浆热场与地热场有许多不同:(1)热的来源不同。地热场的热主要来自地壳物质放射性生成的热;岩浆热场的热来自岩浆。(2)热的分布不同。地热场的等温面总体上呈水平分布,温度随深度增加而增加;岩浆热场的等温面则围绕岩体分布,靠近岩体温度高,远离岩体温度低,故岩浆热场的等温面是大体垂直于地热场等温面分布的。(3)热场的规模不同。地热场是全球性的,岩浆热场是局部性的,只在有岩浆的地方才出现。岩体小则规模小(热场宽度仅几米或几十米),岩体大则规模大(宽约几千米);如果存在大规模岩浆活动,岩浆热场的长宽均可达几百或上千千米,如在中国东部中生代大规模岩浆活动期间。(4)热持续的时间不同。地热场可以持续很长的时间(几十、几百或几千个百万年);岩浆热场是瞬间的突发性事件,持续的时间从几年到几个百万年。岩浆热场最重要的意义是,它是热液赖以上升的通道,它有利于来自下地壳底部和壳幔过渡带的流体(热液)的活动,使含矿热液得以顺利上升,并在热场范围内进行充分的活动、对流循环、萃取围岩中的成矿金属元素,并在地壳浅部岩浆热场之上合适的部位沉淀富集成矿。"岩浆热场"的概念依赖于对岩浆物理性质和过程的深入了解,由于我们这方面的知识相对贫乏,所以目前对岩浆热场的了解还是很肤浅的。     

Thermal sensitivity analysis of emplacement of the magma chamber in Los Humeros caldera,Puebla, Mexico

We present results of our simulation study of the effects of the depth (top of the magma chamber at 5–10 km) and volume (1000–1400 km³) of the primary heat source beneath the Los Humeros caldera. The thermal gradient in the vicinity of the magma chamber calculated from the temperature excess (difference between the simulated and the initial temperatures prior to emplacement of the magma) is more sensitive to its depth of intrusion than to its volume. This relationship was quantified from multiple linear regression equations. The temperature excess at 2–3 km depth due to the emplacement of magma and its conductive cooling is also more dependent on the chamber depth than on its volume. Therefore, in the study of calderas, volcanoes, and geothermal fields, constraining the chamber depth is more important than its volume. Similarly, comparison of the thermal regime inferred along vertical and horizontal profiles shows the importance of solving the thermal transport equations in three dimensions instead of one or two dimensions.     

Thermal modelling of the Larderello geothermal field (Tuscany,Italy)

We present a 3-D thermal model of the Larderello geothermal field (Tuscany) to evaluate (1) the extent and contribution of the heat transfer mechanisms (conduction vs. convection) at the intermediate-upper crust levels, (2) the variability of the heat and mass fluxes entering from below and (3) the crucial role of the formation permeability. The model, composed by three main layers, considers the upper 10 km of the crust to better constrain the simulations with experimental data from borehole, fluid inclusion studies and hypocentral distributions. Several sets of simulations were carried out with different bottom boundary temperatures and different formation permeabilities for the two deeper layers. The results indicate that the present temperature (T) and pressure distributions in the Larderello field require deep reservoir rocks with higher permeability than the overlying capping units and underlying intermediate crust. Permeability values of 1 mDarcy for the reservoir rocks are enough to allow fluid convection, if the temperature at 10 km depth is as high as 500 ± 50°C. The presence of localized zones with formation permeability 50–100 times higher than the surrounding rocks strongly favours the migration of over-pressurized fluids, which episodically break through the overburden, feeding the presently exploited geothermal fields.     

“岩浆热场”说及其成矿意义(上)

文中首先介绍了岩浆热场的沿革,指出"岩浆热场"并不是一个新概念,很早已出现在文献中了。常识告诉我们,炽热的岩浆侵位必定在周围形成一个热场,这就是岩浆热场。国外在19世纪晚期即对岩浆热场有比较深入的研究。罗文积和陈家清早在20世纪90年代(1997)就明确表述了对"岩浆热场"的认识,并给予精彩的阐述,他们是"岩浆热场"学说的先行者。文中简要介绍了地热场的概念,讨论了岩石的热力学性质、热传导形式、影响热流和地温分布的各种可能的因素。而"岩浆热场"指的是:在一个很短的时间内,在一个局部的地区出现的岩浆活动,使该区域地热梯度相对周边地区明显的上升,使之形成一个局部区域的热场。热场的规模很小,通常只离岩体几米或几公里。热异常和等温线是垂直分布的,叠加在地热场之上。并介绍了岩浆热场的基本特征。岩浆热场与地热场的热的来源不同,热的分布不同,地温梯度不同,热场规模不同,持续的时间不同,热与流体的关系不同以及研究方法不同等。岩浆热场说是建立在岩浆物理性质和岩浆动力学基础上的,它依赖于对岩浆的形成、侵位、冷却、固结及其对围岩的影响等知识的了解。牵涉到岩浆的温度、压力、黏度、密度、流变等基本问题。文中着重讨论了岩浆对围岩的热效应和岩浆热场中的流体等问题。岩浆热场最重要的意义是,它是流体赖以上升的通道。文中还概略讨论了流体和成矿流体来自哪里?流体是怎样上升的?热场中流体是怎样对流循环的?热液双向汇聚成矿理论等。     

腾冲热海地热田的概念模型

云南省腾冲县热海地热田是中国大陆上最大的一个地热田，根据１９７３年以来所获得的地质，地球化学和地球物理资料，有可能建立热海地热田的概念模型，热海地热田的盖岩层为厚约３００ｍ的中新统，热储层为前寒武系高黎贡山群内的低速层，埋深约１５００ｍ，热储流体为ＮａＣｌ型饱和水，温度为２３０～２７５℃热田的热源为地下６～７ｋｍ深的一个岩浆囊，它侵位于花岗岩之中，厚约２０ｋｍ，其顶部的温度约为６６７℃。     

上海地源热泵系统对地质环境的热影响分析

根据地源热泵工程试验场两年监测数据,分析了地下换热区地温场分布特征以及地源热泵系统短期运行对地质环境的热影响效应。换热区地温场分布主要受气温、建筑冷热负荷、原始地温、岩土导热系数、与换热孔距离等因素影响。在吸排热比基本平衡的条件下,地源热泵系统对地质环境的热影响较小。选择合理的埋管间距,充分利用地源热泵的热回收功能,采用冷却塔—地埋管、地表水—地埋管等复合系统,有助于消除吸排热比不平衡现象。     

西藏日喀则市查孜地热田水化学及同位素特征研究

查孜地热田位于青藏高原西南部。通过野外地质调查及地热钻孔揭露,发现该地热田具有较好的地热资源开发潜力。对该地热田地下热水的水文地球化学及同位素特征开展研究,发现地下热水为HCO₃-Na型; 热水与冷水的离子浓度存在差异,显示二者具有不同的物质来源,但又具有一定的水力联系。热水中的δD和δ¹⁸O同位素特征表明: 该地热田地下热水的主要补给来源为大气降水和冰雪融水,补给海拔为5 652 m以上; 大气降水和冰雪融水下渗并与沿断裂破碎带向上运移的地热流体混合后形成地下热水。断裂破碎带不仅是温泉的主要通道,也是地热流体的储集场所,地热田热水在地下运移滞留至少41 a。据SiO₂地热温标估算得出,该区地下热储温度为148.18 ~153.49 ℃,天然放热量为2 264.33×10¹² J/a。     

Three-dimensional temperature field simulation of a cooling of a magma chamber,La Primavera caldera,Jalisco, Mexico

The La Primavera caldera lies close to the triple junction of the Tepic-Zacoalco, Colima, and Chapala rifts in the western part of the Mexican Volcanic Belt. It is a promising geothermal field with 13 deep wells already drilled. We calculated solute geothermometric temperatures (Na–K, Na–Li, and SiO₂) from the chemistry of geothermal water samples; determined values are generally between 99°C and 202°C for springs and between 131°C and 298°C for wells. Thermal modelling is an important geophysical tool as documented in the study of this and other Mexican geothermal areas. Using the computer program TCHEMSYS, we report new simulation results of three-dimensional (3-D) thermal modelling of the magma chamber underlying this caldera through its entire eruptive history. Equations (quadratic fit) describing the simulated temperatures as a function of the age, volume and depth of the magma chamber are first presented; these indicate that both the depth and the age of the magma chamber are more important parameters than its volume. A comparison of 3-D modelling of the La Primavera and Los Humeros calderas also shows that the depth of the magma chamber is more important than its volume. The best model for the La Primavera caldera has 0.15 million years as the emplacement age of the magma chamber, its top at a depth of 4 km, and its volume as 600 km³. Fresh magma recharge events within the middle part of the magma chamber were also considered at 0.095, 0.075, and 0.040 Ma. The simulation results were evaluated in the light of actually measured and solute geothermometric temperatures in five geothermal wells. Future work should involve a smaller mesh size of 0.050 or 0.10 km on each side (instead of 0.25 km currently used) and take into account the topography of the area and all petrogenetic processes of fractional crystallization, assimilation, and magma mixing as well as heat generation from natural radioactive elements.     

Hydrochemical and isotopic characteristics of Chazi geothermal field in Shigatse in Tibet

Chazi geothermal field is located in Southwestern Tibetan Plateau. The geothermal potential has been ascertained by field survey and geothermal drilling. The hydrogeochemical characteristics and isotopic composition of this geothermal field show that the underground water belongs to HCO₃-Na. The difference of ion concentration between hot water and cold water shows that they have different material sources and certain hydraulic relations. The isotope analysis of δD and δ¹⁸O determines that the major source of the geothermal water in this area is meteoric water and water melt from the mountains snow and ice with the height above 5 652 m. The geothermal water was the result of the mixture of deep infiltrated meteoric water and deep-source fluid when they move along the fracture zone. The fracture zone is the main channel of hot spring and the reservoir of geothermal fluid. The migration retention time of the geothermal water in this geothermal field was at least 41 years. According to the calculated temperature of SiO₂ geothermometer, the geothermal temperature of the underground heat reservoir is about 148.18~153.49 ℃, and natural heat discharge is 2 264.33×10¹² J/a.     

鲁北地区砂岩热储地热尾水回灌地温场变化特征分析

本文通过对德州水文家园砂岩热储地热回灌井全井段温度监测,在深度上分为5个区段论述了地温场的变化特征,重点对热储温度恢复的热量来源进行了分析。研究结果表明,在规模化生产性回灌时,低温地热尾水回灌会使得回灌井周边热储温度明显降低,并且恢复速率特别缓慢;通过定性分析和定量计算,认为大地传导热流和顶部地层传导热流在热储温度恢复中的作用极其微弱,而外围同层相对高温地层传导的热量和地热水流动带来的热量是其温度恢复的主要热量来源。基于该研究结果,在规模化回灌条件下,发生热突破是必然的,因此深入开展回灌工程采灌井合理井距研究、防止短时间内发生热突破是非常有必要的。     

Near-surface Geothermal Gradient Observation and Geothermal Analyses in the Xianshuihe Fault Zone, Eastern Tibetan Plateau

The Xianshuihe fault(XSHF) zone, characterized by intense tectonic activity, is located at the southwest boundary of the Bayan Har block, where several major earthquakes have occurred, including the 2008 Wenchuan and the 2013 Lushan earthquakes. This study analysed underground temperature sequence data for four years at seven measuring points at different depths(maximum depth: 18.9 m) in the southeastern section of the XSHF zone. High-frequency atmospheric noise was removed from the temperature sequences to obtain relatively stable temperature fields and heat fluxes near the measurement points. Our measurements show that the surrounding bedrock at(the seven stations distributed in the fault zone) had heat flux values range from-41.0 to 206 m W/m~2, with a median value of 54.3 m W/m~2. The results indicate a low heat flux in the northern section of DaofuKangting and a relatively high heat flux in the southern section of Kangting, which is consistent with the temperature distributions of the hot springs near the fault. Furthermore, our results suggest that the heat transfer in this field results primarily from stable underground heat conduction. In addition, the underground hydrothermal activity is also an obvious factor controlling the geothermal gradient.     

岩浆热源型地热系统释义

以壳内岩浆囊(熔融体)为主要热源的地热系统是国内外地热界的热点研究对象.然而,当前尚无"岩浆热源型"地热系统的确切定义,对此类地热系统的认识也存在诸多争议.本文讨论了岩浆热源型地热系统的形成与其下熔融体的关系,阐释了"岩浆热源"的形成机制及其对上覆地热系统影响的本质,综述了利用岩浆流体地球化学组成识别其对地热水定量贡献...     

赤峰热水镇地热田地热流体流动模型

赤峰热水镇地热田内发育有南北向、北西—南东向、北东—南西向及东西向断裂构造,这些断裂大部分为张性断裂,并构成地热田热水上升的主要通道。热水的补给区在远离地热田的西部和北部山区,天水从此处渗透到地下深处,缓慢流动到地热田下部,被侵入的花岗岩和玄武岩所构成的热源以热传导方式加热,再沿断裂、裂隙上升,形成了地热田浅部热水储集层。本地热田热水属于天水起源的中、低温裂隙水。     

沧县隆起北部地温场特征及其主控因素分析

沧县隆起北部地区地热资源丰富,但关于地热田的形成机制与主控因素仍存在争议.通过收集区域地质资料和井温资料,并结合热传导正演模拟,系统地分析了研究区内地温梯度横向与垂向的特征、不同地质条件下地温场的分布规律,并正演了两条实测地热剖面,分析了研究区内地温场分布的主控因素.研究表明,横向上地温梯度在凸起区相对较高,凹陷区相对...     

Regional thermo-rheological field related to granite emplacement in the upper crust: implications for the Larderello area (Tuscany,Italy)

We modelled thermo-rheological perturbations, related to the emplacement of a magmatic body in the upper crust. This approach was considered relevant for the areas characterized by elevated surface heat flow and chiefly for the geothermal fields. The numerical conductive thermal model applied to the Larderello geothermal area in Tuscany, allowed to constrain size, depth and timing of emplacement of the pluton. We inferred that the emplacement of a magmatic body, at a minimum depth of 3 km, having a horizontal extension of 14 km and a maximum thickness of 8 km, can reasonably reproduce the observed regional surface heat flow anomaly of the Larderello area, when 300 (± 100) kyr are elapsed from the magma emplacement. Even assuming an incremental growth, the first magma injection should not be older than 1 ± 0.3 Ma.

Results of the thermal model were used to set up a rheological model and to simulate the drifting of the brittle-ductile transition during the cooling of the pluton. A comparison with the K-horizon profile, a prominent seismic reflector in the Larderello area, was then performed. It was found that the K-horizon approximately corresponds with the pluton roof and with the current location of the brittle-ductile transition.     

Characteristics of Temperature Distribution and Control factors in Geothermal Field

In recent years, China has carried out large‐scale exploration, exploitation and utilization of geothermal resources, but there is no unified understanding of the distribution characteristics of geothermal field and the controlling factors of forming geothermal field. As for the heat source, some scholars think it is the contribution of radioactivity, fault, magma chamber, or an abnormal heat source, and even the heat generated by the influence of the tectonic movement. As a result, many exemplary geothermal explorations have made great mistakes. After drilling at a depth of 3000‐5000m, the temperature obtained is not as good as the common low‐temperature sedimentary basin, and the losses are huge and extremely uneconomical.     

Thermal Constraints on the Emplacement Rate of a Large Intrusive Complex: The Manaslu Leucogranite, Nepal Himalaya

The emplacement of the Manaslu leucogranite body (Nepal, Himalaya)has been modelled as the accretion of successive sills. Theleucogranite is characterized by isotopic heterogeneities suggestinglimited magma convection, and by a thin (<100 m) upper thermalaureole. These characteristics were used to constrain the maximummagma emplacement rate. Models were tested with sills injectedregularly over the whole duration of emplacement and with twoemplacement sequences separated by a repose period. Additionally,the hypothesis of a tectonic top contact, with unroofing limitingheat transfer during magma emplacement, was evaluated. In thislatter case, the upper limit for the emplacement rate was estimatedat 3·4 mm/year (or 1·5 Myr for 5 km of granite).Geological and thermobarometric data, however, argue againsta major role of fault activity in magma cooling during the leucograniteemplacement. The best model in agreement with available geochronologicaldata suggests an emplacement rate of 1 mm/year for a relativelyshallow level of emplacement (granite top at 10 km), uninterruptedby a long repose period. The thermal aureole temperature andthickness, and the isotopic heterogeneities within the leucogranite,can be explained by the accretion of 20–60 m thick sillsintruded every 20 000–60 000 years over a period of 5Myr. Under such conditions, the thermal effects of granite intrusionon the underlying rocks appear limited and cannot be invokedas a cause for the formation of migmatites. KEY WORDS: granite emplacement; heat transfer modelling; High Himalayan Leucogranite; Manaslu; thermal aureole     

采暖尾水回灌对砂岩热储温度的影响——以鲁北地区为例

为保证地热资源可持续开发利用,深入开展回灌工程采灌井合理井距研究、防止短时间内发生热突破是地热领域的重大关切。本文根据全井段测温结果,对砂岩热储不同采灌工程地温场变化特征进行了分析。研究表明：随着回灌年度的增加,冷水范围越来越大,热量对回灌井有效补给路径变长,回灌井热储段温度曲线波动幅度越小;当采灌井距较小、底部温度相对较低时,回灌冷水会对开采井造成影响,致使开采井热储温度降低;在回灌初期热对流在热量恢复中占主导作用,随着回灌年数的增加,冷水范围越来越大,热对流对温度场恢复的作用逐渐减弱,周边和相邻隔水层热传导在温度恢复中的作用越来越显著,温度恢复越来越慢,因此,在规模化回灌条件下,热突破是必然的。