希夏邦马峰东南富曲河谷的冰川沉积和冰川构造

在希夏邦马峰（海拔８０１２ｍ）东南富曲河谷，中更新世以来有三次冰期；即聂拉木、富曲和普罗冰期。它们均可再分为两个亚阶段。聂拉木南的高冰碛平台长３.５ｍ，宽１.５ｋｍ，厚２００ｍ。属于中更新世聂拉木冰期（聂聂雄拉冰期）的巨大山谷冰川沉积，中尼公路从高冰碛平台尾端通过，形成数公里长的冰碛剖面，呈现出美丽多姿的冰川成因类型沉积和冰川构造现象，包括冰下，冰上融出碛，冰内.冰下河道沉积，冰湖沉积，坠碛，流磺等。冰川运动时造成的冰川构造，如断层、滑动面-…等也很清楚，代表了海洋型（暖冰川）冰川沉积和冰川构造特征，是中国目前研究冰川构造最理想的场所。     

DISCUSSIONS ON EXPOSURE PROBLEMS OF GLACIAL DEPOSITS BEFORE BURIED——BASED ON THE AYIZHISU GLACIER IN PAMIR

针对冰川沉积系列细砂粉砂在埋藏前的曝光问题,笔者等人在帕米尔阿依直苏冰川做了观察.本文结合这些观察结果从沉积学角度讨论冰川沉积系列在产生、搬运、沉积过程中的曝光问题,并参考前人研究,将各类冰川沉积进行归纳.认为组成冰碛3个来源的细粒物质中,风成的全部曝光、岩壁风化碎屑部分曝光、冰川侵蚀岩屑不曝光;3个沉积系列中,冰水沉积完全曝光、冰川接触沉积中冰砾阜完全曝光、蛇形丘基本不曝光;冰碛物在沉积过程中,冰面融出碛基本上曝光、冰下滞碛和融出碛不曝光.本文根据分析,给出了冰川沉积系列曝光评估参考值.     

西藏札达盆地及周缘高山区第四纪冰川遗迹与冰期的初步划分和对比

札达盆地及周缘高山区的第四纪冰川遗迹分布广泛,类型齐全、发育连续.特征的冰碛及冰水堆积地貌有:冰水堆积平原或冰水堆积平台、冰碛丘陵等.挤压构造遗迹有:褶皱、断裂表皮构造、压坑、压裂构造、变形砾石等.ESR年代测定结果表明,冰碛形成的最大年龄为2.33Ma.依据冰碛、冰水堆积的特征、分布和形成年代等,区域冰川发育由老到新可划分出:7次冰期、6次间冰期、1次冰缘期、1次新冰期.该区是目前所知青藏高原第四纪冰川遗迹发现最多、保存最全和发育最连续的地区,为青藏高原地区的第四纪冰川演化研究、冰期的划分和对比、古气候古环境的研究,提供了重要的实际资料和依据.      

藏南邛多江地堑的晚新生代沉积地层及对南北向裂谷形成时代的初步限定

邛多江地堑构成了藏南近南北向裂谷带最东侧的错那-沃卡裂谷中段,是由地堑西缘高角度正断层主控的半地堑式断陷盆地。详细的地质、地貌调查表明,该地堑内主要充填有晚新生代以来的多套河湖相、冰碛及冰水沉积地层。河湖相地层底部以黏土和粉砂为主,上部以砾石层为主,向上砾石砾径逐渐变大,顶部为早更新世冲积砾石层;冰碛主要发育于地堑中部山前地带,构成宽缓的冰碛台地或者终碛垄、侧碛堤。地层的测年结果表明,该区主要发育两套晚新生代河湖相地层,早期沉积时代早于5Ma,晚期为晚第四纪;而冰碛及冰水沉积的时代主要为中更新世。综合该区地质地貌、沉积和构造等分析结果表明,早期的河湖相沉积与盆地发生初始裂陷后的主边界正断层发生强烈垂直活动有关,而晚期的河湖相沉积主要形成于盆地后期萎缩过程中,成因可能与中更新世以来的冰川堰塞湖有关。由于邛多江地堑受控于西侧主边界正断层,早期沉积应晚于其初始裂陷时代。因此,进一步综合现有年龄数据资料认为,藏南近南北裂谷的初始裂陷时代应早于5~10Ma,但晚于约15Ma。     

北京潭柘寺地区第四纪冰川遗迹的宏观和微观特征

以北京西山潭柘寺地区第四纪冰川遗迹的宏观特征研究为基础,对管坨岭冰期和赵家台冰期的古冰川沉积进行了石英颗粒表面结构形貌组合特征的分析。结果表明,管坨岭冰期的管坨岭冰碛层和大富庄冰碛层,以及赵家台冰期的太平庄冰碛层中的石英颗粒表面结构,以冰川成因的形貌组合占优势,而赵家台冰期鲁家滩冰水沉积中的石英颗粒表面结构,则以冰川和流水共有成因的形貌占优势。所以,据冰川遗迹的宏观和微观特征,可以肯定该区分别在早更新世和中更新世曾发育过两次古冰川作用。      

冰碛转化为冰川泥石流堆积过程及其沉积特征

冰碛与冰川泥石流堆积同是冰冻圈内的两种混杂堆积，前者是后者的物质来源，后者又是前者的再生沉积，在沉积特征上既有相同处，又有相异点。本文阐述了由冰碛向冰川泥石流堆积的转化过程，并遵循多指标综合原则，提出了依据沉积构造、砾石组构、沉积韵律、粒度特征、石英砂表面结构、粒序垂向变化等１０项区分二者的判别标志。     

中国第四纪亚冰期划分之商讨

本文举例概述中国第四纪冰川流行之证据,包括漂砾、冰溜面及冰川刮痕、表皮构造、冰碛和冰水堆积、冰期时期冰川条痕砾和冰蚀地形等以及动植物遗迹。关于亚冰期之划分及其依据,有的地区亚冰期划分次数最多者可有五、六次。主要依据是:冰碛、冰水沉积特征与其所在地层层位以及新、老冰川地貌的叠加与其干扰现象。     

青藏高原第四纪大陆冰盖形成的野外证据

青藏高原第四纪大陆冰盖形成的各种各样冰川遗迹,分布十分广泛。是重建和研究古大陆冰盖最有力的证据。目前发现和比较肯定的冰蚀遗迹有:冰蚀平原、冰蚀丘陵、U形谷、冰蚀洼地、冰盆、冰阶、冰笕、冰坡和基岩鼓丘等。冰碛遗迹主要有:块砾碛、鳍碛(新类型)、漂砾碛(新类型)、冰水砂砾岩、和冰碛丘陵、冰台及侧碛堤等。从大陆冰盖遗迹分布连续和普遍发育,证明青藏高原在第四纪时期曾形成连绵一片的统一的大陆冰盖。大陆冰盖形成的时期为早更新世,形成时的古雪线的海拔高度最多在2000m左右,冰川类型属于海洋性统一大陆冰川。     

达古冰山地质公园地质遗迹资源及地学意义

达古冰山地质公园以现代山地冰川地貌景观为核心,辅以古冰川冰蚀地貌、冰碛地貌和冰水堆积地貌景观,融类型丰富、规模宏大的地表碳酸盐岩钙华堆积地貌、各类水体景观和构造地质遗迹资源为一体。通过对各类地质遗迹进行分析,探讨了地质公园地质遗迹资源地学意义。研究表明,该地质公园在冰川地质学、第四纪地质学、地貌学、岩溶地质学、和岩石学等方面都具有极高的科学研究价值和极为典型的地学科普意义。     

山地冰川冰消后（paraglacial）沉积的粒度与石英颗粒表面特征——以贡嘎山东坡为例

冰期向间冰期转换或现代全球气候变暖等背景下,冰川一旦退缩就会引发基岩和冰碛边坡失稳,甚至冰川泥石流等冰消后（paraglacial）地表过程;因此,该过程成为驱动原冰川作用区及其下游谷地地貌演化的重要因子。然而,冰消后过程时空变化特征及其驱动因子等相关研究,目前仍面临两方面问题：其一,各种冰消后沉积、冰碛等混杂堆积间判别的手段缺乏;其二,冰消后过程对下游谷地演化影响的关注不足。为此,本文以典型海洋型冰川作用区——贡嘎山东坡的冰碛和冰消后沉积为研究对象,并结合两处大陆型冰川冰碛,探讨了粒度和石英颗粒表面形态特征两个指标区分上述混杂堆积的有效性。结果表明,各种冰消后沉积物继承了源区冰碛的很多特征,但也呈现出一定独特性,指示出这两个指标综合对比的方法能实现各类冰消后沉积、冰碛的有效判别;同时,鉴于冰川性质、冰川作用期次和岩性等因素都可能影响源区冰碛的粒度和石英颗粒表面形态,以这两个指标判别时应限于同区域,避免选用沉积物的共性特征。基于贡嘎山东坡冰碛、各种冰消后沉积物与磨西台地不同层位粒度与石英颗粒表面形态的对比和聚类分析,确认台地底部和中部可能分别为MIS3冰碛与MIS3以来的泥石流沉积,上部则可能为河流沉积或河流改造过的冰川泥石流沉积。磨西谷地冰消后过程堆积和暴露时代,指示出强烈冰消后过程使得磨西河谷地末次冰期向全新世转换时一直在堆积,甚至持续到约6~7 ka前后才停止,之后转为侵蚀下切。     

Glacial sedimentary processes and environmental reconstruction based on lithofacies

Glacigenic sediments exposed in pits around Villeneuve, near Edmonton, Alberta, are subdivided into facies based on grain size, sedimentary structure, glacially-induced deformation and faulting, and groove marks. Two diamicton facies are recognised, one of which is interpreted as a primary till, deposited directly from glacier ice, and the other as a product of mass-movement. The diamicton facies are closely associated with current bedded facies interpreted as fluvioglacial deposits. The stratigraphic sedimentological and tectonic aspects of these fluvial deposits suggest subglacial deposition in channels and cavities. At any one place the glacier appears to have alternated between being attached to the bed, causing thrusting and sole marking, and being separated from the bed by a cavity in which fluvial and mass-movement sediments accumulated. The net result is a highly complex and laterally variable stratigraphy produced by a single glacial advance. The correct interpretation of such sequences is essential if lithostratigraphy is to be used to establish glacial history. In addition, the interpretations presented here have implications regarding the formation of soft zones in ‘till’. They indicate that the soft zones are beds of sorted sediment redeposited by mass-movement.     

波堆藏布谷地冰碛丘陵形成机制及其环境意义

波堆藏布谷地中分布着大面积的冰碛丘陵, 通过考察发现其个体大小、外形、分布规模及内部砾石组成等方面都与高纬大冰盖外围形成的冰碛丘陵有很大的区别. 以冰川沉积学理论为基础, 从沉积动力学的角度讨论中低纬度波堆藏布谷地中冰碛丘陵的形成机制. 结果表明: 气候变化造成冰川的大面积死冰加之宽阔的河谷、海洋性冰川的特性促使波堆藏布谷中形成如此大面积的冰碛丘陵; 同时,大规模的冰碛丘陵表明气候转暖(抑或变干)的过程是突变的.     

Three-dimensional sedimentary architecture of Quaternary sand and gravel resources: a case study of economic sedimentology (SW Germany)

Quaternary sands and gravels form important, yet often highly heterogeneous economic deposits. Detailed 3-D analysis of the sedimentary structure and stratigraphy of these deposits allows for an accurate estimation of exploitable material. This paper presents a case study in SW Germany reconstructing the 3-D distribution of glacial sediments based on a high-resolution, process-orientated sedimentary facies classification and lithostratigraphy integrated within the geo-modelling package gOcad. Situated along the maximal ice-extent of the Rhine glacier during the last glaciation, the study area is characterised by a morphologically prominent terminal moraine and its associated sandur, which form the stratigraphically youngest sediments of a glacial basin, partially exposed in two gravel pits. These outcrops helped to reconstruct the complex sedimentary architecture of the northern part of the glacial basin. The regional analysis is based on core data, as well as geoelectric and geomagnetic surveys. All data were integrated into km-scale, high-resolution geological 3-D models, depicting the large-scale dynamics of multiple glacier advances and retreats during the Early to Late Pleistocene. These models allow quantifying the thickness and volume distribution of exploitable sandy gravel and help to evaluate the occurrence of non-exploitable interbedded diamicton horizons. The high quality and quantity of gravels particularly north of the terminal moraine classifies the investigated area as very prospective for raw materials exploitation in the future.     

Characterization of pebble fabrics in modern terrestrial glacigenic sediments

ABSTRACT Pebble fabric data are available from several facies of glacigenic sediments deposited by modern glaciers, where sedimentary processes can be observed or inferred with relatively little ambiguity. Over 100 samples from contemporary environments illustrate fabrics characterizing melt-out till, deformed and undeformed lodgement till, sediment flow deposits and ice slope colluvium. Lodgement till fabric variability is related to the two-layer structure of these sediments; a structureless, friable upper layer with low shear strength and high consolidation coefficient, overlying a very compact material of horizontal platy structure. Fabric strength (assessed by eigenvalue analysis) is weaker and pebble dip is more dispersed in the upper structureless horizon. Stronger fabrics in the lower platy horizon may be primary depositional fabrics which are destroyed by subglacial shearing to give weaker fabrics in the upper horizon. Alternatively, upper horizon fabrics may be characteristic of all recently-deposited lodgement tills, with stronger fabrics developing at depth by dewatering and consolidation. There is a general reduction in fabric strength and an increase in particle dip associated with the transition from melt-out tills, through undeformed and deformed lodgement tills, to sediment flow deposits and ice slope colluvium. There is, however, considerable overlap in the fabric strengths characteristic of sediment flow deposits and deformed lodgement tills. Fabric data from modern glacial sedimentary facies are used to assist in interpreting the mode of deposition of some Quaternary glacial sediments. Relatively strong fabrics characteristic of melt-out tills and undeformed lodgement tills are more likely to be diagnostic of genesis than weaker fabrics associated with deformed sediments.     

Ice-marginal sedimentary, glacitectonic, and morphologic features of Pleistocene drift: An example from Newfoundland

A Pleistocene drift sequence in hummocky terrain along part of the southern Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland is interpreted to comprise complexly interrelated lodgement till, melt-out till, flow till, supraglacial and proglacial outwash, and supraglacial rhythmites. The gray and tan melt-out tills are stacked in imbricate fashion, giving rise to exceptionally thick stratigraphic sections. Contacts between melt-out tills are interpreted as remnants of shear planes because they are sharp, they dip in the up-ice direction, and they converge toward valley margins. Overlying flow tills interdigitate with supraglacial outwash. The drift sequence was deposited during a single episode of glaciation, rather than by repeated glacier advance, as previously proposed. It is the product of thrusting of englacial debris along ice-marginal shear planes, subsequent melting-out of englacial debris, and formation of supraglacial flow till and outwash. Preservation of this sequence probably is due to high content of englacial debris within the Wisconsinan ice. The sedimentary, glacitectonic, and morphologic features of this sequence are similar to those found at the margins of certain Arctic glaciers of subpolar thermal regime which have recently been the subject of Pleistocene glacial sedimentation models for west-central Canada and Great Britain. Recognition of these distinct elements indicates wisconsinan glacier lobes were of the cold Arctic type in southeastern Newfoundland. Alternative explanations for this sequence, such as deposition by glaciers of temperate thermal regime or by surging glaciers, are discounted. Because the features described here are complex and difficult to recognize, they may be more widespread in Pleistocene drift than has previously been interpreted.     

Glacial retreat sedimentation in the Smalfjord Formation, Late Precambrian, North Norway

Tillites, conglomerates and sandstones occurring in the basal part of the Smalfjord Formation along the Varangerfjord, East Finnmark, North Norway are believed to have formed during the retreat of a glacier. At Kvalnes, on the south side of the fjord, the following sequence, up to 20 m thick, is found: (1) massive monomict tillite interpreted as a subglacial till, (2) massive polymict tillite with lenticular intercalations of stratified sandstone and tillite, interpreted as supraglacial/proglacial drift, (3) polymict conglomerate interstratified with laminated sandstones, interpreted as braided stream deposits. The last named interfingers laterally and is overlain by marine sandstones. At Bigganjargga, near the head of the fjord, a lens of tillite about 3 m thick rests on a striated pavement and is overlain by sandstones and shales. Part of the tillite, containing irregular patches of slightly winnowed tillite, is interpreted as a melt-out till, while a marginal part consisting of inclined tillite beds is interpreted as a series of flow till deposits. The lens is believed to be an oblique section through what was originally an ice-cored moraine ridge. During a subsequent transgression, the moraine was partially eroded, a lag conglomerate was formed, and overlying marine sediments were deposited. Bedded flow tills formed in a supraglacial/proglacial environment may be preserved where the extent of current reworking is very low (such as an isolated end moraine). Stratified conglomerate and sandstone, intimately intercalated with tillite, is to be expected at a glacier margin where glacial meltwater is locally and occasionally abundant, and glacier ablation permits downslope flowage of mobilized supraglacial fluid till.     

Middle to Late Weichselian Norwegian Channel Ice Stream deposits and morphology on Jæren, southwestern Norway and the eastern North Sea area

Glacial lineations on a bank area and a coastal lowland, both bordering the Norwegian Channel, are studied with regard to morphology and distribution by means of side-scan sonar data, detailed digital maps and fieldwork. Their genesis and age are further elucidated through stratigraphic and sedimentologic information from excavations in one typical coast-parallel drumlin. Four excavated sections revealed four lithologic units: Prodeltaic glaciomarine sand, glaciofluvial gravel, glaciomarine diamicton and deformation till. After Middle Weichselian delta progradation, glaciomarine diamicton was deposited and later subglacially reworked by a northwards flowing glacier. The two upper diamictons form the main volume of the ridge, which is interpreted as a drumlin, and imply a reinterpretation of the Jæren part of the so-called Lista moraine. Preconsolidation of glaciomarine diamicton suggests a maximum ice thickness of 500 m during drumlin formation, indicating an ice surface slope of 1 m/km. The occurrence of sediments that provided low basal shear stresses, and the orientation of drumlins and megaflutes indicating ice confluence both point to high glacier flow velocities and suggest that an ice stream, rather than a slower moving part of the ice sheet, occupied the Norwegian Channel during the Late Weichselian maximum. Deformation till overlying, more or less, undeformed glaciomarine diamicton suggests that high glacier velocities during periods of low driving stresses were possible due to a subglacial deformable layer.     

Sedimentary facies and landform genesis at a temperate outlet glacier: Soler Glacier, North Patagonian Icefield

This paper focuses on the structural glaciology, dynamics, debris transport paths and sedimentology of the forefield of Soler Glacier, a temperate outlet glacier of the North Patagonian Icefield in southern Chile. The glacier is fed by an icefall from the icefield and by snow and ice avalanches from surrounding mountain slopes. The dominant structures in the glacier are ogives, crevasses and crevasse traces. Thrusts and recumbent folds are developed where the glacier encounters a reverse slope, elevating basal and englacial material to the ice surface. Other debris sources for the glacier include avalanche and rockfall material, some of which is ingested in marginal crevasses. Debris incorporated in the ice and on its surface controls both the distribution of sedimentary facies on the forefield and moraine ridge morphology. Lithofacies in moraine ridges on the glacier forefield include large isolated boulders, diamictons, gravel, sand and fine-grained facies. In relative abundance terms, the dominant lithofacies and their interpretation are sandy boulder gravel (ice-marginal), sandy gravel (glaciofluvial), angular gravel (supraglacial) and diamicton (basal glacial). Proglacial water bodies are currently developing between the receding glacier and its frontal and lateral moraines. The presence of folded sand and laminites in moraine ridges in front of the glacier suggests that, during a previous advance, Soler Glacier over-rode a former proglacial lake, reworking lacustrine deposits. Post-depositional modification of the landform/sediment assemblage includes melting of the ice-core beneath the sediment cover, redistribution of finer material across the proglacial area by aeolian processes and fluvial reworking. Overall, the preservation potential of this landform/sediment assemblage is high on the centennial to millennial timescale.     

Composition and genesis of glacial hummocks, western Wisconsin, USA

Glacial hummocks associated with the Superior Lobe in western Wisconsin are stagnant-ice features composed of melt-out till, meltwater-stream sediment, and flow till. The greater proportion of melt-out till in these hummocks than in hummocks described elsewhere suggests that a model of extensive, supraglacial reworking of supraglacially released debris does not apply to the western Wisconsin hummocks. Interpretation of melt-out till in hummock exposures is based on its strong fabric oriented parallel to regional ice-flow direction. Other features of this melt-out till include poorly developed stratification (color banding and discontinuous thin sandy lenses), and minor faulting, both of which support a melt-out origin. We suggest that as stagnant, debris-rich ice began to melt, supraglacially released debris was deposited as flow till and meltwater-stream sediment (with some debris-flow sediment and lake sediment), but as the thickness of supraglacial debris increased, debris melting out at depth was stabilized, allowing features characteristic of melt-out till to be retained. Because the supraglacial debris was sandy and the stagnant ice was likely at the pressure-melting point, the supraglacial debris was well drained and did not readily fail and flow. Debris volume in the glacier generally was greater at the glacier margin, but lateral and longitudinal variations within this zone were caused by thrusting, freezing-on, or ice-margin fluctuations, which in turn resulted in variations in hummock relief. Ice-walled-lake plains are commonly associated with the hummocks and developed where debris volume was small.