我国北方地区降水再循环率的初步评估

利用1976~1995年的20年月平均NCEP/NCAR再分析资料, 对我国北方地区降水再循环率进行了评估, 结果表明:黄河流域总的降雨只有19%来自当地的水汽蒸发, 其他81%降水来自外部的水汽流；黄河上游降水主要由来自青藏高原较强的水汽所提供，因此这里的降水再循环率小于15%。但黄河上游的降水蒸发后，在西风的输送下, 为黄河下游提供了大量的水汽，通过汇合南北方向来的水汽，在黄河下游形成了降水再循环率达到30%以上的椭圆形区域。评估结果显示:降水再循环率随季节变化差异较大, 8月份的降水再循环率最高, 达31%, 而在11、12、1月份3个月的降水再循环率不到5%。结果还显示蒸发率和降水率的空间分布以及它们的年际变化都对应得很好，表明我国北方地区蒸发受降水影响较强。蒸发率、降水率和降水再循环率在20年中均有增加, 表明气候变暖对我国北方地区的水汽循环的影响已经显现。     

我国中部和南部地区降水再循环率评估

利用1976～1995 年20 年NCEP 再分析资料,对我国中、南部地区降水再循环率进行了评估,发现长江上游总的降雨有20%来自我国中、南部地区水汽蒸发,长江中下游总的降雨则有40%来自这一地区. 降水再循环率有很强的季节变化规律,8、9、10三个月的降水再循环率最高,达四成左右,而5、6、7三个月的降水再循环率不到四分之一.蒸发率和降水再循环率在20年中均有增加的趋势,这可能与气候变暖有关.     

气候变化背景下中国陆地水循环时空演变

水循环是气候系统各子系统相互作用过程中一个最活跃的枢纽,受气候变化影响显著。本文采用观测和多套再分析数据,系统分析了1979年以来中国及各大流域大气水汽含量、降水、蒸散发和地表径流等水循环要素年际变化。研究发现,1979-2018年,中国陆地整层大气水汽含量和水汽收支呈显著上升趋势;水汽收支除在松花江和西南诸河略有下降,其余流域均呈上升趋势;降水除西北诸河流域呈现显著上升趋势外,其余流域变化不显著;蒸散发整体呈微弱增加,但南方大部流域呈现显著的减小趋势;除西北诸河径流显著上升趋势外,北方大部分流域地表径流呈现减少趋势,而南方流域的径流变化趋势复杂多样。相对1979-2000年,21世纪以来中国年平均气温上升约0.63℃,年降水量、大气水汽含量分别增加0.5%和1.2%,水汽总输入和输出量均减小,降水再循环率增加10.9%。进入21世纪,中国陆地水资源一级分区内循环均较前20 a活跃,降水再循环率除松花江和辽河流域外,均有所增加。其中,海河、黄河、淮河和西北诸河流域的水汽和蒸发形成的降水都有所增加;辽河流域蒸发形成的降水有所增加,但输入水汽减少导致流域降水减少最多;松花江、长江、珠江和西南诸河流域蒸发形成的降水增加,输入水汽减少导致降水略有减少;东南诸河蒸发形成的降水略有增加,但整体变化不大。     

2012年前冬伊犁河谷持续性大暴雪成因分析

本研究利用传统气候学的Brubaker模型和降水同位素学方法,定量研究了新疆天山地区水汽再循环特征。结果表明：(1)气候学角度,天山地区水汽再循环率为9.32%。当地蒸发的水汽形成的降水量为41.8mm,外来水汽输送到山区形成的降水量为407.2mm;(2)同位素水汽氘盈余为精细化的分析水汽再循环提供了新的思路,进一步证实天山地区水汽主要来自于西风带的水汽输送,而乌鲁木齐站平均再循环水汽仅占到8%。随着海拔的增加,水汽再循环率逐渐下降,在海拔2000m以上的水汽再循环可以忽略不计。在西风带关键水汽输送路径建立降水同位素观测断面,使两种方法相结合,共同研究水汽的来源和路径问题,是下一步需要关注的问题。     

天山地区水汽再循环量化研究

利用传统气候学的Brubaker二元模型和降水同位素平衡模型定量研究了新疆天山地区水汽再循环特征。结果表明:(1)气候学角度,天山地区水汽再循环率为9.32%。当地蒸发的水汽形成的降水量为41.8 mm,外来水汽输送到山区形成的降水量为407.2 mm;(2)同位素水汽氘盈余为精细化的分析水汽再循环提供了新的思路,进一步证实天山地区水汽主要来自于西风带的水汽输送,而乌鲁木齐站平均再循环水汽仅占到8%。随着海拔的增加,水汽再循环率逐渐下降,在海拔2000 m以上的水汽再循环可以忽略不计。在西风带关键水汽输送路径建立降水同位素观测断面,使两种方法相结合,共同研究水汽的来源和路径问题,是下一步需要关注的问题。     

利用高分辨率ERA-Interim再分析资料对2011年夏季江淮区域水汽汇的诊断分析

利用水平分辨率接近0.7°×0.7°、垂直方向60层的ERA-Interim再分析资料,分析了2011年夏季江淮区域水汽汇的演变及各项的贡献,研究了与水汽辐合项有关的水汽输送及相应的月平均环流和天气尺度扰动。结果表明:(1)ERA-Interim再分析资料对江淮区域夏季水汽平衡有较好的描述能力。由水汽辐合项与水汽局地变化项计算的水汽汇值和用降水与蒸发求得的水汽汇值高度一致,说明该资料可用于研究江淮区域的水汽汇。(2)2011年夏季江淮区域整体处于水汽汇区,且水汽汇值具有明显的2~6天的天气尺度振荡。降水对水汽汇的贡献远大于蒸发,而水汽辐合项与水汽局地变化项对水汽汇均有较大贡献,并且对水汽汇具有超前1~2天的指示作用。(3)月平均环流和天气尺度扰动均通过与水汽输送密切相关的水汽辐合项对江淮区域水汽汇产生显著影响。月际尺度的水汽汇变化与大尺度大气环流尤其是副高有密切关系;而江淮流域及西南地区的天气扰动对江淮区域水汽汇的天气尺度振荡起到至关重要的作用。     

中国东部水分收支的初步分析

利用中国160站降水资料、中国气象局提供的探空资料、NCEP/NCAR提供的再分析资料(简称NCEP资料)和ECMWF提供的再分析资料(简称ERA40资料), 根据水汽平衡方程, 估算了1990～1999年中国东部的陆表水分收支, 分析了华北、 长江流域和华南三个典型区域的陆表水分收支, 同时对NCEP、ERA40资料在东亚地区的陆表水分收支进行评估。结果表明, 在中国东部区域, 年平均和夏季是水汽汇区, 冬季降水与蒸发基本平衡；华北在年平均、夏季以及冬季均为水汽源区；长江流域在年平均、夏季及冬季均为水汽汇区；华南在年平均和冬季为弱水汽汇区, 夏季为水汽源区。两套再分析资料基本揭示出了上述特征。就区域平均的蒸发和降水的年际变化而言, 两套再分析资料的结果与观测都存在显著相关, 但估算的蒸发NCEP好于ERA40； 相对于气候态的定量比较而言, 由两套再分析资料得到的陆表水分收支距平(即降水减去蒸发的距平)的年际变化基本与观测一致。     

局地蒸发和外部水汽输送对松花江流域夏季降水的贡献

本文基于Brubaker二元模型,采用JRA-55再分析资料定量研究了局地蒸发和外部水汽输送对松花江流域夏季气候态降水及其年际变率的相对贡献,并探讨了相应的物理机制。气候平均而言,外部水汽输送是松花江流域初夏（5～6月）和盛夏（7～8月）降水的最主要水汽源。受西风带影响,初夏自西边界进入松花江流域的水汽贡献占主导,外部水汽输送对当地降水的贡献为78.9%,源自蒸发的水汽贡献为21.1%。较之初夏,由于盛夏来自南边界的水汽输送加倍,外部水汽输送贡献增加,外部水汽输送和蒸发对降水贡献分别为86%和14%。JRA-55再分析资料可以合理再现观测降水演变,1961～2016年JRA-55再分析资料降水与观测在初夏与盛夏的相关系数分别可以达到0.73和0.83。研究发现,初夏,由于西南季风异常导致的南边界进入的水汽输送异常是松花江流域降水年际变率的主要原因,自西边界、北边界进入的水汽输送与降水呈现显著负相关,初夏局地蒸发的贡献不显著,该水汽输送异常对应的环流型易发生在El Ni?o衰减年初夏。盛夏来自南边界的水汽输送起主导作用,局地蒸发贡献与降水变化显著负相关,海温强迫作用对该环流异常的强迫并不显著,中高纬度大气内部变率影响占主导。由于盛夏降水与地表温度在盛夏期间显著负相关,盛夏时期降水偏少时,温度偏高,蒸发偏强,进而蒸发水汽对降水贡献增加。     

1998年中国大洪水时期的水汽收支研究

文中首先通过水汽通量的势函数和流函数的计算 ,分析了 1998年中国大洪水时期的全球水汽背景 ,然后从雨情分析入手 ,将 1998年 5～ 8月长江、松花江流域洪水期分为 7个降水阶段、11个区域 ,对各时段、各区域的水汽收支作了诊断分析 ,得到中国大洪水时期部分水汽收支图像 ,揭示了水汽循环的一些规律 ,主要结果如下 :( 1) 1998年 5～ 8月 ,中国东部地区是全球最强的水汽汇区 ,这与 1991年夏季的情况相似。水汽通量的势函数极小值区 (最大辐合区 )对应强降水区 ,并且暴雨区的水汽辐合是由半球尺度的水汽输送造成 ,这表明 ,即使对于区域性大洪水 ,它必须从极大范围地区获得水汽供应。分析还表明 ,南海季风的爆发及其区域内西南方向水汽流的增强与印度洋势函数 (水汽辐散 )的增强关系密切。( 2 )大气的水汽收支表明 ,降水主要来自水汽的辐合项 ,辐合主要发生在大气低层 ;用余差法计算出的局地蒸发项一般为降水量的 13 ～ 12 ,因而水汽的再循环过程也十分重要 ;垂直输送项把低层的水汽向中上层输送 ,增加高层的水汽积累 ,为积云的发展和潜热释放提供条件。( 3 )南海地区的水汽输送情况与中国强降水密切相关 ,南海季风爆发后 ,其强劲南风气流输送水汽的区域往往是强降水发生区。对于整个中国东部大陆区而言 ,来     

全球变暖背景下对流性降水变化特征及影响 因子分析

根据NCEP/NCAR逐日、逐月温度资料和相对湿度资料,及长江中下游60个气象站逐日降水资料,采用趋势分析、突变检验等方法,研究了近60年来全球和北半球地表温度变化趋势,分析了温度增加前后,夏季(6～8月)对流性降水的变化特征及其部分影响因子.结果表明:近60年来,北半球年平均及夏季平均地面温度为增暖趋势,1998年为增暖突变年份;变暖后,长江中下游地区夏季对流性降水事件的发生频率呈增多趋势且强度增强;全球增暖后,对流层中、高层水汽含量呈下降趋势,对流层低层水汽含量呈上升趋势;热含量除个别月份外,在700、850、1000 hPa均有明显增长;大气中不稳定性也显著增强.这些与对流性降水事件发生频率的增加和强度的增强有很好的对应关系,说明全球变暖导致的大气中水汽含量变化、湿空气热含量增加和不稳定性增强对对流性降水事件可能有重要影响.     

Moisture recycling over the Mackenzie basin

Abstract

Moisture recycling over the Mackenzie basin is investigated by estimating the precipitation recycling ratio (the ratio of precipitation derived from local evaporation to the total precipitation within the basin) for the region with the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) reanalysis dataset and the Meteorological Service of Canada (MSC) precipitation climatology. The results suggest that recycling is very active over the region during the warm season (April – August) and extremely inactive during the cold season. The annual recycling ratio estimated for the basin is about 0.25, which is close to that estimated by others for the Mississippi and Amazon basins despite the lower annual evapotranspiration over the Mackenzie basin.

The high recycling ratios and the recycling patterns estimated for the basin during the warm season are found to be consequences of the unique topographical and climatic settings characterizing the region. Analysis of conditions during the years having anomalous spring and summer precipitation suggests that the large‐scale atmospheric setting could act in concert with the basin's unique topographic and surface characteristics to increase or to decrease precipitation and its recycling over the basin, depending on whether the basin is under the influence of a persistent large‐scale low or a high pressure system. In the former case, much of the recycled precipitation would fall over the north‐western parts of the basin where the runoff ratios are relatively high, and thus enhance the summer discharge from the basin. When the basin is under the influence of a persistent high pressure system, much of the recycled precipitation would fall over the southern part of the basin where the runoff ratios are relatively low, and thus reduce the discharge from the basin. It is suggested that this latter effect might have contributed to the record low summer discharge from the basin during 1995.     

Air-Sea Interaction over the Indian Ocean During the Two Contrasting Monsoon Years 1987 and 1988 Studied with Satellite Data

Summary The air-sea interaction processes over the tropical Indian Ocean region are studied using sea surface temperature data from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor onboard the NOAA series of satellites. The columnar water-vapour content, low-level atmospheric humidity, precipitation, wind speed, and back radiation from the Special Sensor Microwave Imager on board the U.S. Defense Meteorological Satellite Program are all examined for two contrasting monsoon years, namely 1987 (deficit rainfall) and 1988 (excess rainfall). From these parameters the longwave radiative net flux at the sea surface and the ocean-air moisture flux are derived for further analysis of the air-sea interaction in the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the south China Sea and the southern Indian Ocean. An analysis of ten-day and monthly mean evaporation rates over the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal shows that the evaporation was higher in these areas during the low rainfall year (1987) indicating little or no influence of this parameter on the ensuing monsoon activity over the Indian subcontinent. On the other hand, the evaporation in the southern Indian Ocean was higher during July and September 1988 when compared with the same months of 1987. The evaporation rate over the south Indian Ocean and the low-level cross-equatorial moisture flux seem to play a major role on the ensuing monsoon activity over India while the evaporation over the Arabian Sea is less important. Since we have only analysed one deficit/ excess monsoon cycle the results presented here are of preliminary nature. Received November 5, 1997 Revised March 20, 1998     

青藏高原那曲地区夏季一次对流云降水过程的云微物理及区域水分收支特征

第三次青藏高原科学试验针对高原夏季云和降水物理过程开展了大量观测研究,为进一步揭示高原云微物理结构、云中水分转化和区域水分收支特征,本文采用中尺度数值预报模式（WRF）并结合高原试验期间的各种观测资料,对那曲观测试验区2014年7月5~6日的一次较为典型的夏季对流云降水过程进行了数值模拟研究。结果表明WRF模式能够基本再现高原夏季对流云的发展演变过程以及降水的日变化特征。模拟结果显示高原夏季对流云中具有较高的过冷云水和霰粒子含量,冰相过程在高原云和降水的形成和发展中具有十分重要的作用,地面降水主要由霰粒子融化产生。暖雨过程对降水的直接贡献很小,但在霰胚形成中具有十分重要的作用。霰粒子胚胎的形成主要来源于冰晶与过冷雨滴的撞冻过程,雪粒子和过冷雨水的碰冻转化及过冷雨滴的均质冻结贡献相对较小。霰粒子的增长过程在12 km（-40℃）以上层主要依靠对冰晶、雪粒子的聚并收集过程,而在其下层的增长过程主要依赖对过冷云水的凇附增长,对雪粒子的聚并收集和凝华增长过程较小。高原那曲地区净水汽收支为正,日平均降水转化率可达20.75%,接近长江下游地区,高于华北、西北地区。该地区日降水再循环率为10.92%,说明局地蒸发的水汽对高原降水的水汽来源具有一定的贡献,但高原降水的90%仍然由外界输入的水汽转化形成。     

Moisture recycling and the maximum of precipitation in spring in the Iberian Peninsula

In the semiarid interior of the Iberian Peninsula, the topographic insulation from the surrounding seas promotes the role of internal sources of moisture and water recycling in the rainfall regime. In inland Iberia, the annual cycle of precipitation often has a distinctive peak in the springtime, when evapotranspiration (ET) is the highest, in contrast to the coastal areas, where it is more closely related to the external moisture availability and synoptic forcing, with a maximum in winter-autumn and a pronounced minimum in the summer. In this work we investigate the role of land surface water fluxes in the intensification of the hydrological cycle in the Iberian spring. We used data from 5 km resolution WRF-ARW model simulations over the Iberian Peninsula for eleven months of May (2000–2010). To bring out the effect of ET fluxes, we conducted experiments where ET water over land was removed from the system. Our findings indicate that the impact of ET on precipitation is on average very large (37 % increase). The impact is particularly strong in the interior north and northeast areas where the observed annual rainfall cycle has a peak in May, suggesting that the role of surface water fluxes is very important there. To investigate whether this role is as a water source or to amplify precipitation dynamics, we computed the recycling ratio analytically from the model data. In addition, we developed a procedure to quantify the amplification impact by comparing the recycling ratio and the relative change in precipitation between control and experiments with ET removed. Results show that the role of surface water fluxes on precipitation depends on large-scale forcing and moisture advection. When the synoptic forcing and moisture advection are strong, such as in fronts associated to Atlantic storms, the impact of ET fluxes is small. When there is potential for convection, as is commonly the case of late spring in the Iberian Peninsula, ET fluxes have a significant impact. Surface moisture fluxes moisten the boundary layer and increase moist static energy, strengthening convective processes, and their role goes from being a primary water source for precipitation (recycling) to have mostly an amplification effect as external moisture availability increases. Our findings show that for the eleven simulated May cases over the Iberian Peninsula, the role of ET fluxes in activating recycling is important and explains 27–58 % of their total impact on precipitation, depending on the method used to calculate the recycling ratio. This indicates that the complementary effect of ET on amplifying rainfall from external sources of moisture is comparable in magnitude to the recycling mechanism and important as well.     

Atmospheric Moisture Residence Times and Cycling: Implications for Rainfall Rates and Climate Change

New estimates of the moistening of the atmosphere through evaporation at the surface and of the drying through precipitation are computed. Overall, the e-folding residence time of atmospheric moisture is just over 8 days. New estimates are also made of how much moisture that precipitates out comes from horizontal transport versus local evaporation, referred to as recycling. The results depend greatly on the scale of the domain under consideration and global maps of the recycling for annual means are produced for 500 km scales for which global recycling is 9.6%, consisting of 8.9% over land and 9.9% over the oceans. Even for 1000 km scales, less than 20% of the annual precipitation typically comes from evaporation within the domain. While average overall atmospheric moisture depletion and restoration must balance, precipitation falls only a small fraction of the time. Thus precipitation rates are also examined. Over the United States, one hour intervals with 0.1 mm or more are used to show that the frequency of precipitation ranges from over 30% in the Northwest, to about 20% in the Southeast and less than 4% just east of the continental divide in winter, and from less than 2% in California to over 20% in the Southeast in summer. In midlatitudes precipitation typically falls about 10% of the time, and so rainfall rates, conditional on when rain is falling, are much larger than evaporation rates. The mismatches in the rates of rainfall versus evaporation imply that precipitating systems of all kinds feed mostly on the moisture already in the atmosphere. Over North America, much of the precipitation originates from moisture advected from the Gulf of Mexico and subtropical Atlantic or Pacific a day or so earlier. Increases in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere produce global warming through an increase in downwelling infrared radiation, and thus not only increase surface temperatures but also enhance the hydrological cycle, as much of the heating at the surface goes into evaporating surface moisture. Global temperature increases signify that the water-holding capacity of the atmosphere increases and, together with enhanced evaporation, this means that the actual atmospheric moisture should increase. It follows that naturally-occurring droughts are likely to be exacerbated by enhanced potential evapotranspiration. Further, globally there must be an increase in precipitation to balance the enhanced evaporation but the processes by which precipitation is altered locally are not well understood. Observations confirm that atmospheric moisture is increasing in many places, for example at a rate of about 5% per decade over the United States. Based on the above results, we argue that increased moisture content of the atmosphere therefore favors stronger rainfall or snowfall events, thus increasing risk of flooding, which is a pattern observed to be happening in many parts of the world. Moreover, because there is a disparity between the rates of increase of atmospheric moisture and precipitation, there are implied changes in the frequency of precipitation and/or efficiency of precipitation (related to how much moisture is left behind in a storm). However, an analysis of linear trends in the frequency of precipitation events for the United States corresponding to thresholds of 0.1 and 1 mm/h shows that the most notable statistically significant trends are for increases in the southern United States in winter and decreases in the Pacific Northwest from November through January, which may be related to changes in atmospheric circulation and storm tracks associated with El Niño–Southern Oscillation trends. It is suggested that as the physical constraints on precipitation apply only globally, more attention should be paid to rates in both observations and models as well as the frequency of occurrence.     

西藏藏北高原典型植被生长对气候要素变化的响应

选取西藏藏北高原西部高寒草原植被、中部高寒草甸植被及东南部高寒灌丛草甸植被 3 种藏北地区最典型的植被类型, 结合临近 3 个气象观测站的资料, 分析这 3 种典型植被类型地区 1999—2001 年旬平均气温、旬总降水量和 SPOT VEGETATION 卫星 10 d 最大值合成归一化植被指数 (NDVI) 变化特征以及 3 种典型植被基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的生长变化对旬平均气温和旬总降水量两个主要气候要素变化的响应关系。 结果表明: 藏北地区降水资源的空间分布特点是东南部向西北部逐渐减少, 气温则由南向北逐渐递减, 与降水资源分布相反, 蒸发量西部高, 东部低; SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 能够较为准确地反映 3 种典型植被生长变化特征, 所反映的植被返青期和枯黄期等重要植被生长阶段与由积温计算的植被生长特征基本一致; 藏北地区基于 SPOT VEGETATION NDVI 的植被生长变化与气温的相关系数明显高于与降水的相关系数 , 其中以那曲为代表的高寒草甸植被的 NDVI 与旬气温和旬降水总量的相关系数最大, 分别为 0.81 和 0.68 , 表明藏北地区由于海拔高, 气候寒冷, 气温对该地区植被生长的影响明显高于降水的影响, 即该地区植被生长变化对气温的响应程度明显高于对降水的响应程度 , 是植被生长的限制性因素; 不同植被类型对气温和降水两个要素的响应程度大小依次是高寒草甸、高寒灌丛草甸和高寒草原。