Geographical differences and influencing factors of rural energy consumption in Southwest mountain areas in China: A case study of Zhaotong City

China is a mountainous country,and Southwest mountain areas cover the most mountain areas in China and have the most serious problems.Taking Zhaotong city as the study area,based on 902 rural household questionnaires of 11 villages in 2 counties and Tobit model,this paper analyzes the geographical differences and influencing factors of energy consumption for non-production purposes of rural households living in different terrain conditions.This research finds that:(1) Coal takes up the main part of energy consumption in valley areas and coal consumption is mainly affected by per capita cultivated land area,household income,proportion of rural household energy expenditure in total expenditure,coal price,and family population size.Firewood takes up the main part of energy consumption in high mountain areas and firewood consumption is mainly affected by per capita firewood forest area,distance to purchase coal,household income,electricity price,and coal price.(2) Only when the distance is greater than 20 kilometers,that is the average distance of rural households living in middle mountain areas(1,600m~1,800m) to purchase coal,the transportation condition has a significant impact on coal consumption.(3) In high mountain areas,prices of coal and electricity are the main factors influencing energy consumption choice of rural households.Too high prices of coal and electricity would to some extent lead rural households to choose firewood as the main energy consumption type.Compared to coal,rural households prefer to choose electricity.     

Characteristics and mechanism of agricultural transformation in typical rural areas of eastern China: A case study of Yucheng City,Shandong Province

Rural off-farm employment, rapid loss of agricultural land, and advanced technology popularization had led agricultural production in Chinese typical rural areas come at a critical transformation and upgrade stage. Based on sample survey data gathered from 401 households in Yucheng City, Shandong Province, this paper focuses on the characteristics and mechanism of agricultural transformation in typical rural areas of the eastern China. It was found that 74.3% of households surveyed kept at least one member engaging in off-farm employment, and 57.1% looked forward to expanding the operational scale of arable land, while just 13.7% had actually transferred their agricultural land. Since growing off-farm employment does not result in the collapse of traditional subsistence agriculture, therefore, agricultural production in Yucheng City is at an incomplete transformation phase from traditional small-holder farming to modern scale economy. It is caused by both macro environments and family characteristics, while urban-rural dual structure, imperfect rural development policy and agricultural technology popularization make peasant economy strengthen upon maintenance, and small-holder farming becomes peasant’s natural response owing to pluriactivity, local off-farm employment, reverse elimination, etc. In order to achieve smooth agricultural transformation of typical rural areas in the eastern China, it needs to promote professional differentiation among peasants, under clear policies adopted by central government. Providing comprehensive services for agricultural production and improving production skills and knowledge of farmers who are still living in the countryside will effectively stimulate the process of agricultural transformation.     

Current situation and influencing factors of pluriactivity in mountainous and hilly rural areas of Sichuan province, China

In this study,the current situation of pluriactivity in mountainous and hilly rural areas of Sichuan province was analyzed using representative sample survey data and natural factor data calculated based on 30 m-resolution DEM and GIS.Moreover,using logistic regression model,a quantitative analysis was conducted on factors influencing pluriactivity in terms of individuals,households,communities and natural environmental conditions.The results showed that,(1) only 17.77% of rural laborers in mountainous and hilly areas of Sichuan province were engaged in pluriactivity.Geographically,pluriactivity was mainly chosen according to the "proximity principle",and was concentrated in construction and service industries;(2) the following factors have a significant influence on whether rural laborers in hilly areas engage in pluriactivity:gender,number of years of education,marriage,number of laborers and time to towns.Those with little influence include:age,health,family size,arable land per capita and per capita income,whether there are elderly people over 75 years and children less than 3 years.According to the main factors affecting pluriactivity,the government should enhance vocational skills training for rural laborers in mountainous and hilly areas,especially for female laborers,further improve transport accessibility and encourage rural laborers,especially female laborers to move into pluriactivity to increase the income of farm households.     

山地灾害致贫风险初步分析————以湖北省恩施州为例

中国的贫困地区主要分布在山区,山地灾害的多发,易发在某种程度上成为制约贫困地区经济发展的因素之一.目前,山地灾害的研究集中于动力学研究,缺乏风险尤其是灾害致使贫困风险的研究.本文对山地灾害特有灾害与一般地质灾害的概念进行了区分;根据贫困的内涵与可量测性,定义了山地灾害的贫困脆弱性及山地灾害致贫风险;以贫困脆弱性分布和灾害危险性分布,构建区域山地灾害致贫风险评价模型,并基于此模型对少数民族特困地区--湖北省恩施土家族苗族自治州(简称恩施州)进行应用研究.在示例分析中,首先利用确定性系数模型和频率比例法对山地灾害的危险性进行了评价;然后,从暴露性和应对能力2个方面选取了经济,社会及自然指标,以进行脆弱性评价;最后,利用通用灾害风险评价公式对研究区由于山地灾害导致的贫困风险在空间的分布进行评价,得到了研究区的山地灾害致贫风险分布与分级图.     

Measurement of self-development capacity in the contiguous destitute mountainous areas,China

Affected by the mountainous location and ecological vulnerability, the incidence of poverty in contiguous destitute mountainous areas is higher than that in other regions of China. Regional selfdevelopment capacity is an internal driving force for poverty reduction in contiguous destitute mountainous areas. This study selects 17 indicators from the four dimensions: industrial capacity, market capacity, spatial capacity and soft power to measure the overall self-development capacity of 658 counties in 14 different mountain areas in China. The results show that self-development capacity is at a low level and the development of the different regions is unbalanced. The self-development capacity is low in the southwest and high in the east and "low in the middle, high around" in each study region. It has achieved a certain degree of improvement in 2011, 2013 and 2015. From the perspective of the four dimensions, industrial capacity is the constraint on the promotion of self-development capacity. Based on this, we should develop green industries in line with local realities and achieve industrial poverty eradication, but the expansion of space capacity should take into account the resources and environmental carrying capacity in these areas and should not be blindly expanded. Local leaders should be made to improve the local education level and public service level, improve social infrastructure, develop reserve strength for the future, and enhance future development potential.     

Does labor off-farm employment inevitably lead to land rent out?Evidence from China

The focus of land economics is on how to decrease the misallocation of resources to achieve an optimal allocation of resources. Both the theories of new economics of labor migration(NELM) and the conclusions of empirical studies reveal that land resources will inevitably be reallocated(e.g., rented out) if the resources of family labor are reallocated(e.g., off-farm employment). However, this study reveals that off-farm employment does not inevitably lead to land rent out. More precisely, this study uses survey data on 8031 peasant households from 27 provinces in China and explores the relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out by describing spatial features and through empirical analysis(e.g., IV-Probit model and IV-Tobit model). The results show the following: 1) There is an indirect relationship between off-farm employment and land rent out regarding spatial area aggregation, i.e., regions with a higher ratio of off-farm employment also have a lower area of land rent out. 2) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the behavior of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the behavior, i.e., there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between off-farm employment and the behavior of land rent out, with the turning point being 55.55% offfarm employment. 3) Off-farm employment is significantly positively correlated with the area of land rent out, but its square is significantly negatively correlated with the area, i.e., there is an inverted Ushaped relationship between off-farm employment and the area of land rent out, with the turning point being 56.22% off-farm employment. This study helps explain why China has a high ratio of off-farm employment but a lower rate of land rent out.     

The “Valley Economy” Model of Regional Development: A Case Study of Mountain Areas in Beijing,Northern China

A case study is presented of a regional development model for valley economies in the mountain areas of Beijing, China. The nature and framework of the valley economy model are described and the development of the model, which is specific to the mountain areas of Beijing, is analyzed. Five different valley economy models applied in the Beijing mountain areas are compared. The major purpose of the valley economy model is to develop the regional economy, including the selection of appropriate industries, the allocation of industrial space, the establishment of supply chains and the integration of various industries. Pilot experiments using the valley economy model have been conducted in seven counties（districts） in Beijing： Pinggu, Huairou, Changping, Mentougou, and Fangshan districts, and Yanqing and Miyun counties. Five models for developing the Beijing mountain areas have been explored, including： creative cultural industries, characteristic industry clusters, the promotion of large tourist areas, natural scenic tourism and folk cultural tourism. Each model has its own unique features and potential to help in the regional development of mountain areas.     

Revitalizing Old Industrial Base of Northeast China： Process, Policy and Challenge

Northeast China is the largest old industrial base of China that endured persistent influence of the past planned economy system. This region has lost its leading place since the reform and opening up, and became a backward region by contrast with the coastal areas. This paper elaborates the evolutionary process of the old industrial base of Northeast China, analyses the main reasons for the decline, gives a preliminary evaluation on the revitalizing polices in recent years, and points out major long-term challenges for future revitalization. It concludes that for Northeast China, a relative declining area： 1） it is indispensable to get the long-term policy support from the central government; 2） system reform and structure adjustment are the crucial strategies, particularly the reform of the large and medium state-owned enterprises; and developing new industries is as important as upgrading traditional advantaged industries; 3） the local governments should play an indirect role, avoiding from any unnecessary intervention on economic activity; and 4） social security and investment climate must be improved simultaneously. In addition, the author stresses that the lack of knowledge on the nature of old industrial base had led to failures of the past initiatives, and revitalizing the old industrial base should be treated as a holistic regional project including economy growth, society progress and environment improvement.     

Analysis of types and changes of village-level economy in rural Gongyi city,Henan Province since 1990

Based on the research on the rural living standard in China in terms of annual net income per capita, we define six types of village-level economy, i.e. ＂to be extremely poor＂, ＂to make a basic living＂, ＂to dress warmly and eat one＇s fill＂, ＂to try to enrich （to disengage poverty）＂, ＂to be well-off＂ and ＂to be affluent＂. The data of average annual net income of all the 292 villages between 1990 and 2004 in rural Gongyi City, Henan Province were collected, verified and classified. By using standard deviation, coefficient of variation and regression analysis, it is found that the Gongyi＇s rural economy has boosted up remarkably from the relative-poverty and absolute-poverty stages in 1990 to the well-off in 2004. However, the absolute differences between villages present a trend of enlargement, while the relative differences fluctuating. On the other hand, spatial analysis of village-level economy shows that most villages with relatively high economic development level were located along national expressway and most villages with absolute-poverty lay in remote mountainous areas in 1990. Since the 1990s, the rapid urbanization and industrialization have had strongly positive effects on rural economic growth. Initial economic foundation, natural resources and traditional techniques also contribute to village economy. From the perspective of geography, villages with location advantages, such as near urban center or industrial parks, have more chances for their economic development and the ＂core-periphery＂ economic structure has been presented in the process of rural development.     

SPATIAL DIFFERENTIATION OF LAND TRANSFER ——Case Study of Shanghai, Nanjing and Taizhou in Changjiang River Delta

1INTRODUCTIONIt is one of important issues in the field of geographical science to analyze the spatial differentiation of regional phenomenon. The research on spatial differentiation can be cast back to Thunen's agricultural location theory. Af- terwards, many scholars developed the theory and paid moreattentiontothelawandformingmechanismofspa- tial differentiation of some phenomena including inhabi- tation structure, population variation, environmental ele- ments, rural development, and …     

A new perspective on China’s industrial development strategy

At present China is facing challenges from economic globalization, ecological economy and knowledge economy in its process of economic development. The following ideas may be heuristic in establishing China’s regional development strategies: 1) In locating industries, the impact of industries on the eco-environment should be fully considered. 2) Industrial restructuring should be focused on the restructuring of products, not on the restructuring of the three traditional industries (primary, secondary and tertiary industries). 3) The establishment of key industries should be focused on large-scale corporations or famous brand products, not on a particular industrial sector. 4) The complementarity and cooperation between the east and the west of China should be on products and markets, not on natural resources. The advantages in natural resources for the west of China can not be over-estimated. The advantages in products and market potentials for the west of China may be explored.     

Changes in Agricultural System as Farmers Adapt to Economic-Social and Climatic Changes in the Min Upriver Rural Areas in Western Sichuan,Southwestern China

Rapid economic growth in China has brought about great economic-social changes in rural areas, having considerable impact on the society in economy and environment. With a per capita possession of about 0.08 ha of cropland, Chinese farmers in rural areas adopt various ways in response to these changes in a bit to maintain their livelihood, wherein the agricultural system is facing one more options possible. To understand how rural communities have used different mechanisms to adapt to the economic and natural changes, we joined a survey in dry valleys of the Min upriver area under Maoxian county of western Sichuan province, southwestern China and visited the local people. Changes in the main crop cultivation have shown up an important means to keep up their household income. Farm households start seeking economic growth through diversified cultivating of cereal and economic crops in five lines, namely cereal, apple monoculture, apple and vegetables, plum and vegetables, mixed fruits and vegetables. These new lines mirror farmers’ flexibility to cope with today’s economic-social and climatic changes. The farming operation has changed all the more from a subsistence on grain to special agricultural products. Economic reforms in the early 1980 s motivated theprogress first in conversion of production from grain to fruits, and the desire to increase family income turned out to be an impetus for the subsequent events. At present, more farmers moving out of the rural areas, uneasy availability of labor force, increased opportunity cost of labors and their wages, increased farm size, and the urgent demand for the agricultural labor force, all these combine into the trend of the agricultural system of China on facing further economic-social reforms and reconstruction of the countryside across China.     

青藏高原城镇化格局的时空分异特征及影响因素

研究青藏高原城镇化格局的时空分异及其影响因素,有利于推动青藏高原现代人类活动时空过程的认知,对青藏高原就地就近城镇化及可持续发展具有参考意义。根据历次人口普查数据,本研究构建青藏高原县市尺度城镇化空间数据集,参考城镇化发展阶段,采用LISA空间类型划分法和空间计量回归模型,系统分析1990-2010年青藏高原内部城镇化格局的时空分异特征及影响因素。主要结论包括：① 青藏高原整体城镇化水平偏低,2017年底,青藏高原主体部分青海省和西藏自治区的常住人口城镇化水平分别为53.07%和30.8%,低于全国同期水平的58.52%,但青藏高原内不乏高水平城镇化地区,而且各地区间城镇化水平的空间差异缩小;② 青海西部柴达木盆地是高水平城镇化集聚区,羌塘地区是低水平城镇化集聚区,地级行政中心所在县市多呈现自身高、周边低的城镇化格局;③ 与内地相似,第二、三产业从业机会是推动青藏高原城镇化发展重要因素,社会公共服务资源对城镇化拉动作用开始凸显。研究结果可以为青藏高原人类活动研究和青藏高原就地就近城镇化可持续发展政策提供参考。     

Collecting <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ophiocordyceps sinensis</Emphasis>: an emerging livelihood strategy in the Garhwal,Indian Himalaya

In the Garhwal of Uttarakhand, India, the Bhotiya, an ethnically and culturally distinct tribal group, were historically engaged in seasonal migration (i.e. transhumance) to take advantage of scarce mountain resources and trade relations with Tibet. This livelihood practice has all but disappeared. Households are adapting to these changing circumstances by engaging in the collection and sale of the valuable alpine medicinal fungus Ophiocordyceps sinensis, widely known as Cordyceps. The collection of this fungus has exploded, emerging as a lucrative yet high-risk livelihood strategy for many Bhotiya communities. The Bhotiyas’ historic herding and trade-based interactions and knowledge of these alpine environments where Cordyceps are found uniquely positions them to access this valuable biological resource. Elsewhere in the Himalayan region, some households are earning as much as two-thirds of their income from the collection of Cordyceps; in China Cordyceps is now listed as an endangered species due to intense over-exploitation in the Tibetan Plateau. This paper seeks to fill the void in the scientific literature on the social, ecological and economic aspects of the emerging Cordyceps trade in the Garhwal. Our study investigates the socio-spatial dimensions of Cordyceps collection in the high alpine meadows. We document how a fusion of local knowledge and practice with alpine mountain systems has served to reinvigorate the economic integrity of mountain communities at a time of rapid socio-economic change and to reimagine a new relationship between alpine resources and community well-being. The article offers suggestions to address the sustainability of both Cordyceps collection and livelihood activities which hinge on this fungus population. We find a need for (1) community-based conservation measures that are rooted in (2) secure resource access rights for local communities to continue sustainable collection and sale of Cordyceps and (3) participatory-and science-based processes for determining appropriate local collection numbers.     

宅基地流转农户行为影响因素的实证研究——基于广东省19个县市34个行政村的抽样调查

宅基地流转是提高农村宅基地资源有效配置的途径之一.以广东省为例,在对19个县(市、区)34个行政村544户农户抽样调查的基础上,运用 Logistic 回归模型,定量分析广东省不同区域类别下农户宅基地流转的主要影响因素及其影响程度.研究表明:广东省省域59.33%的农户发生宅基地流转,而珠江三角洲地区和粤东地区的比例分别高达67.42%和62.5%,粤西地区和粤北地区的比例分别为59.26%和43.04%;不同区域类别下农户宅基地流转的主要影响因素有明显差异;农户家庭年纯收入和宅基地面积因子是影响广东省宅基地流转的最重要因素.针对研究结果,提出了相应促进宅基地资源更有效配置的政策建议     

中国山地垂直带信息系统的设计与开发

本文收集了大量翔实的山地垂直带资料,建立了我国山地垂直带数据库,创建了山地垂直带谱"数字引擎".使垂直带谱数字化成为可能。采用ArcObject组件开发技术及Visual Basic,自主开发中国山地垂直带信息系统(1.0)。该系统是一个面向对象(山地垂直带谱)的地理信息系统;以山地垂直带"数字引擎"为系统内核,在功能上实现了山地垂直带分布与地理空间区域的联接,同时实现了大范围内选择多个区域进行数据分析的功能。系统界面友好,易操作,显示直观、明了,为自然地理和生态学家者提供了一个比较丰富的山地垂直带谱数据集和有效的分析工具。标志着山地垂直带谱研究进入了数字时代。     

Spatial patterns of interprovincial mountain geographical names in China and implications for regional governance

Suffering from fragile environment, poor accessibility and infrastructure, as well as social, political and economic marginality, the interprovincial mountain geographical entities are difficult areas for the regional governance in China. By analyzing the spatial patterns and the influencing factors of the interprovincial mountain geographical names (IMGNs), the goal of this research is to clarify the geographical features of IMGNs and offer alternatives for the management of interprovincial mountain regions in China. The spatial visualization, the analysis of spatial agglomeration and the influencing factors of IMGNs were all implemented under a geographical information system. Results showed that there were 6869 IMGNs in China according to the database of “China’s Second National Survey of Geographical Names (2014–2018)”, including 4209 mountain geographical names, 1684 mountain peak geographical names and 976 the other mountain geographical names. Hunan Province had the largest number of names while Shanghai had the smallest number of names. In addition, the spatial variance of the mountain peak names and the mountain names were larger than that of the other mountain geographical names, and the IMGNs showed a significant clustering phenomenon in the southern part of China. The relative elevation and the population had an impact on the distribution of the IMGNs. The largest number of the names occurred where the relative elevation was between 1000–2000 m and where the population was between 40–50 million. Density of unnamed interprovincial mountain geographical entities declined from west to east in China. The analysis of generic names of different types of IMGNs implied that the naming of IMGNs is inconsistent. Based on these analyses, it is suggested that the government should take the IMGNs as management units, strengthen the naming of unnamed interprovincial mountain geographical entities, standardize the generic names of IMGNs and identify areas of poverty based on the survey of IMGNs.     

Status and determinants of other gainful activities by farmers in mountainous rural regions of Gilgit-Baltistan,Pakistan

Non-farm income sources are important for livelihood sustenance, especially in the mountainous regions of developing countries. To implement effective policies to improve economic development, policymakers need insights at the grassroots level. Yet, there is a lack of empirical evidence in the context of Pakistan. This study examines the current situation and the factors influencing the decision by farmers to engage in other gainful activities(OGAs) such as farm diversification and off-farm work in the northern mountainous regions of Pakistan. The study is based on quantitative survey data obtained from 459 farm managers and qualitative data from 24 key informants from five different districts in GilgitBaltistan. Utilizing a logistic regression model, a statistical analysis is conducted on farmer and farm characteristics to investigate the probability of farm managers to engage in OGAs. The survey results show that around 71% of farm managers are engaged in OGAs(with 24% in farm diversification, 61% in offfarm work and 15% in both). The share of female farm managers is 51% in farm diversification while male farm managers dominate off-farm activities(69%). The most prevalent types of farm diversification are the processing of farm products and tourism-related farm work, while the main off-farm activities are setting up grocery stores outside the farm, having salaried jobs or engaging in other non-agricultural business. There are significant differences between farmers with and without OGAs particularly regarding farmer characteristics, agricultural income and some other variables. The logit model results show that farmer characteristics mainly determine off-farm work activities while farm(and other) characteristics mostly explain farm diversification. These findings suggest that OGAs primarily exist as livelihood strategies. Farm diversification is linked with the long-term sustenance of agricultural activities while off-farm work is predominantly driven by economic needs. Both types of OGAs require specific support policies while attention needs to be given not to threaten regional food supply.     

Spatial and temporal variability of farm size in China in context of rapid urbanization

During the last 30 years,China has witnessed rapid economic growth and dramatic urbanization,with about 1.2 × 107rural people migrating annually into urban areas.Meanwhile,especially since 1995,the rural population has been declining,which is closely linked to land circulation and the increase in farm size in many villages.Increasing scale of farming operations is often regarded as a key to avoiding the abandonment of farmland and to increasing the income of rural farmers.However,until now,there has been little research on the spatial and temporal variability of farm size at the national level in China.Using data from the national agricultural census and rural household surveys,this study examines the characteristics of land use circulation and the consequent changes in the area of farmland per household.The results show that: 1) 12.2% of rural households were involved in land circulation at the national level.The highest amounts of land circulation have occurred in those provinces where the farmland per capita is more than 0.2 ha or less than 0.1 ha;2) over 80% of households operate less than 0.6 ha of farmland;3) the proportion of mid-sized farms(between 0.2 ha and 0.6 ha per household) has decreased while the smallest and the largest farms have increased.This bears some similarity with the phenomenon known as the ′disappearing middle′,referring to the changes in farm size.This study establishes a framework for interpreting the factors affecting the changes in farm size in China,which include two promoting factors(urbanization and agriculture) and four hindering factors(agricultual land system,household registration,stable clan system,and farmland loss).