一个用于气候模式的简单冻土过程参数化方案的建立和检验

在NCAR／LSM的基础上，发展了一个简单的冻土过程参数化方案，并使用苏联6个站的水气象观测资料考察了耦合了新方案模式的气候效应。在新方案中，加入了对含冰量的求解和在相变过程中的能量变化;并使用Johanson的方案替代了模式中原有的土壤导热率的参数化方案，考虑了含冰量对土壤水热性质的影响。原模式和改进后模式的模拟结果的比较得到，冻土过程方案能够合理的模拟土壤列中的能量收支及水热性质随含冰量的变化。随着入渗的减少和径流的增加，春季的土壤湿度减小。因此，热通量的分配和土壤温度也产生了相应的变化。     

一个简化的混合相云降水显式方案

该文提出一个新的混合相云降水显式方案,它预报2个云物理量,即云水（冷区为过冷云水）和降水（冷区为冰雪,暖区为雨）,考虑了7种云物理过程。文中给出了详细的方程组,可以作为一个子程序供大、中尺度天气模式使用。该方案还与详细微物理显式方案和暖云方案作了实例模拟比较。     

用于GCM耦合的积雪模型的设计

文中描述一个一维的积雪分层模型,目的是要刻划雪盖随季节的变化,与其下冻土变动模型一起,构成完整的雪盖模型。为了保持一定精度,并能用于大气环模式（ＧＣＭ）研究,模型对积雪内部热量及质量输送过程的描述精细程度及计算时分层多少均有所考虑。模型中,改用内能代替温度作为预报量,克服了相变时直接预报温度时造成的计算误差,有效地预报了相变过程。对于积雪密度的变化,考虑了雪花形态的破坏而引起的密度变化及由于压实过程而引起的密度变化。并对各分层自重产生压实过程推导了相应的公式,在模型中对雪盖的光学特性、热力学特性及水流流动特性参数化方案设计也进行了分析。本简化模型的模拟结果与精细积雪模型的比较,具有几乎同等的精度,与俄罗斯的Ｙｅｒ－ｓｈｏｖ站实测数据相比,吻合十分理想。     

The Impact of Soil Freezing/Thawing Processes on Water and Energy Balances

A frozen soil parameterization coupling of thermal and hydrological processes is used to investigate how frozen soil processes affect water and energy balances in seasonal frozen soil. Simulation results of soil liquid water content and temperature using soil model with and without the inclusion of freezing and thawing processes are evaluated against observations at the Rosemount field station. By comparing the simulated water and heat fluxes of the two cases, the role of phase change processes in the water and energy balances is analyzed. Soil freezing induces upward water flow towards the freezing front and increases soil water content in the upper soil layer. In particular, soil ice obviously prevents and delays the infiltration during rain at Rosemount. In addition, soil freezingthawing processes alter the partitioning of surface energy fluxes and lead the soil to release more sensible heat into the atmosphere during freezing periods.     

An explicit approach to microphysics in MC2

Abstract

An explicit microphysics scheme, including warm rain and ice‐phase processes, has been incorporated into the Canadian Mesoscale Compressible Community Model (MC2). Three equations for cloud water mixing ratio, rain water mixing ratio, and ice or snow mixing ratio are solved explicitly. The hydrometeor mass loading term is also included. For the single ice category, a generalized gamma size distribution is assumed and a new formulation by Meyers et al. (1992) is used to predict the ice concentration.

A numerical simulation of the ERICA IOP2 cyclone shows that the scheme is efficient. Despite running at a relatively large time step, the scheme succeeded in capturing the deepening rates and the mesoscale features of the cyclone. The distribution of cloud and precipitation is in good agreement with satellite observations. Comparison with other implicit schemes available in MC2 show comparable performance in terms of deepening rate and precipitation rate. However, the explicit scheme generates mesoscale features in better agreement with observations.     

CLM3.0模式中冻土过程参数化的改进及模拟试验

对NCAR CLM3.0(Community Land Model)的冻土过程参数化进行了改进.根据平衡态的热力学关系和考虑含冰量的土壤基质势的经验公式定义了冰点下的最大液态水含量,超过最大液态水含量的部分冻结为冰,并在水导率的计算中加入了冰的阻挡作用.利用青藏高原改则站2003年4月1日至2004年12月31日的观测...     

Development of a Model for Water and Heat Exchange Between the Atmosphere and a Water Body

A model for studying the heat and mass exchange between the atmosphere and a water body is developed, in which the phase change process of water freezing in winter and melting in summer and the function of the convective mixing process are taken into consideration. The model uses enthalpy rather than temperature as the predictive variable. It helps to set up governing equations more concisely, to deal with the phase change process more easily, and make the numerical scheme simpler. The model is verified by observed data from Lake Kinneret for a non-frozen lake in summer time, and Lake Lower Two Medicine for a frozen lake in winter time. Reasonably good agreements between the model simulations and observed data indicate that the model can serve as a component for a water body in a land surface model. In order to more efficiently apply the scheme in a climate system model, a sensitivity study of various division schemes with less layers in the vertical direction in the water body is conducted. The results of the study show that the division with around 10 vertical layers could produce a prediction accuracy that is comparable to the fine division with around 40 layers.     

变分四维同化方法若干问题的数值试验

资料误差和模式误差都可能影响变分四维同化的结果,针对这一问题利用浅水方程模式进行了变分四维同化的数值模拟试验。试验分三种情况进行：（１）仅修正初始场,（２）仅修正模式;（３）二者同时修正。试验结果表明,当模式有误差时,传统的变分四维同化方法（仅修正初始场）可能将模式的误差混淆到初始场中去,尽管在同化期间可得到较好的拟合,但却不一定能保证同化后有好的预报。如果不修正初始场而修正模式,当模式误差不大时     

An improved two-time-level split-explicit integration scheme for non-hydrostatic compressible models

Summary A new two-time-level split-explicit time integration scheme for the use in non-hydrostatic compressible modelling is presented. It is demonstrated that the scheme is numerically stable and has a smaller splitting error than other comparable split-explicit schemes. This error is due to the combination of advection and fast-wave terms in the numerical scheme.To outline where the splitting error occurs and how it acts within the splitting mechanism, a short review of existing split-explicit time integration methods is given. An in-depth analysis of the eigenvalues of several two-time-level schemes is performed showing that instabilities are associated with the splitting error term. The term has different signs for forward moving and backward moving waves, causing exponential growing or decaying. This unwanted characteristic is not prevented by a diffusive term in general, but might be counteracted by schemes using an estimate of the fast waves at the midpoint of the time increment.The importance of this fast-waves midpoint estimate leads to the formulation of a class of split-explicit two-time-level schemes. Within this framework any forward-in-time and stable advection scheme might be combined with the fast-waves terms in the splitting algorithm.The new method is implemented in the non-hydrostatic model LM of DWD. Some test cases are presented, indicating that the new scheme has the potential to be used in an operational environment.     

A numerical study of the effect of frozen soil on dust emission during an East Asian dust event in December 2009

There are few dust simulation studies for East Asian dust events that took place in the wintertime, when the surface conditions of the dust source region differ from those of the springtime. The soil water turns into ice when the temperature falls below freezing, and the ice might prohibit wind erosion by increasing the binding strength between soil particles. However, the contribution of frozen soil to reducing dust outbreaks remains unclear. This study investigates the effect of frozen soil on dust emission through a case study of a severe wintertime East Asian dust event that originated on 23 and 24 December 2009 in Southern Mongolia and Inner Mongolia and reached Korea on 25 and 26 December 2009 using WRF/Chem with a new dust emission scheme. Model simulations with and without the effect of frozen soil were conducted. A temperature below 0°C and relative soil saturation exceeding 40% were used for frozen soil criteria, and the frozen soil was prohibited from emitting dust. The dust concentrations derived from the simulation without the effect of frozen soil were about three times higher than the observed PM₁₀ concentrations, while the results from the simulation with the frozen-soil effect were quite similar to those of the observation data. The simulation of the wintertime East Asian dust event with the frozen-soil effect improved the model representation. The sensitivity tests for frozen soil indicate that the criteria of frozen soil used in this study are appropriate for this case study.     

变分连续同化中优化步长的推导方法及数值试验

一个好的变分同化方法,必须考虑到预报模式具有误差,并对模式误差进行纠正.变分连续同化(VCA)通过在模式方程中引进一个修正项,连续地调整模式变量,从而达到以上目的.在变分连续同化的迭代过程中,优化步长的选取方法对于同化迭代是否收敛、收敛速度快慢与否都至关重要,文中推导了一种有效利用观测资料计算优化步长的新方法,并以大气运动方程中一维非线性平流波和二维惯性波为例,进行了四维变分资料同化数值试验.数值结果表明,VCA方法和计算优化步长的公式都是有效的.     

渤海海冰数值模式的研究进展

根据渤海海冰冰情,从热力和动力两个方面综述了渤海海冰数值模式的研究进展。从热力参数方案和气候特点上,展望新一代渤海中小尺度短期海冰热力模式;从海冰动力模式中3种常用数值方法的主要特点和实际应用情况上,论述SPH(Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics)方法在渤海海冰短期预报的发展前景。在此基础上,结合海洋气象的发展,讨论海冰短期预报的关键技术。将海冰数值预报模式与传统的中长期海冰统计预报有机地结合起来将是渤海海冰模式未来的发展方向。     

陆面模式CLM对若尔盖站冻融期模拟性能的检验与对比

陆面模式CLM(Community Land Model)是目前国际上发展较为完善并被广泛应用的陆面过程模式。本文使用中国科学院寒区旱区环境与工程研究所位于青藏高原东部的若尔盖高原湿地生态系统研究站的观测资料,对CLM3.0版本及CLM4.0版本在上述地区的模拟性能进行了检验与对比。通过比较观测值与模拟值,验证了模式在高原季节性冻土地区的适用性,发现CLM4.0较CLM3.0在模拟结果上有了一定提高。CLM4.0加入了未冻水参数化方案,使模式可以模拟到冬季土壤冻结后存留的未冻水,显著增加了冻融期间土壤含水量的模拟,同时减小了土壤含冰量的模拟值。并因此增大了模拟的冻土热容量,减小了热导率,使冻融期间土壤温度的模拟也有了一定改善。但是模拟中也发现对于较深层土壤,温度模拟值在冻融期间较观测显著偏低。另外,在消融(冻结)过程阶段CLM4.0模拟的土壤含水量骤增(骤降)的时间均较观测提前。消融过程、冻结过程阶段模拟时间偏短,而完全冻结、完全消融阶段模拟时间偏长。因此CLM对于高原冻土地区的模拟仍是其需要重点改进的地方之一。     

THE FORMULATION OF FIDELITY SCHEMES OF PHYSICAL CONSERVATION LAWS AND IMPROVEMENTS ON A TRADITIONAL SPECTRAL MODEL OF BAROCLINIC PRIMITIVE EQUATIONS FOR NUMERICAL PREDICTION*

In this paper,two formulation theorems of time-difference fidelity schemes for general quadratic and cubic physical conservation laws are respectively constructed and proved,with earlier major conserving time-discretized schemes given as special cases.These two theorems can provide new mathematical basis for solving basic formulation problems of more types of conservative time-discrete fidelity schemes,and even for formulating conservative temporal-spatial discrete fidelity schemes by combining existing instantly conserving space-discretized schemes.Besides.the two theorems can also solve two large categories of problems about linear and nonlinear computational instability.The traditional global spectral-vertical finite-difference semi-implicit model for baroclinic primitive equations is currently used in many countries in the world for operational weather forecast and numerical simulations of general circulation.The present work,however,based on Theorem 2 formulated in this paper,develops and realizes a high-order total energy conserving semi-implicit time-difference fidelity scheme for global spectral-vertical finite-difference model of baroclinic primitive equations.Prior to this,such a basic formulation problem remains unsolved for long,whether in terms of theory or practice.The total energy conserving semi-implicit scheme formulated here is applicable to real data long-term numerical integration.The experiment of thirteen FGGE data 30-day numerical integration indicates that the new type of total energy conserving semi-implicit fidelity scheme can surely modify the systematic deviation of energy and mass conserving of the traditional scheme.It should be particularly noted that,under the experiment conditions of the present work,the systematic errors induced by the violation of physical laws of conservation in the time-discretized process regarding the traditional scheme designs(called type Z errors for short) can contribute up to one-third of the total systematic root-mean-square(RMS) error at the end of second week of the integration and exceed one half of the total amount four weeks afterwards.In contrast,by realizing a total energy conserving semi-implicit fidelity scheme and thereby eliminating corresponding type Z errors,roughly an average of one-fourth of the RMS errors in the traditional forecast cases can be reduced at the end of second week of the integration,and averagely more than one-third reduced at integral time of four weeks afterwards.In addition,experiment results also reveal that,in a sense,the effects of type Z errors are no less great than that of the real topographic forcing of the model.The prospects of the new type of total energy conserving fidelity schemes are very encouraging.     

UKF滤波算法在数据同化中的应用

介绍了一种新的数据同化算法（UKF，Unscented Kalman Filter），该算法不需要计算伴随矩阵，就能够解决模式的非线性问题。以Lorenz系统为例，进行了数据同化的数值试验。结果表明：基于UKF的同化方案与背景场的初始值无关，它能有效地抑制状态变量误差的增长，同化结果精度高。     

THE FORMULATION OF FIDELITY SCHEMES OF PHYSICAL CONSERVATION LAWS AND IMPROVEMENTS ON A TRADITIONAL SPECTRAL MODEL OF BAROCLINIC PRIMITIVE EQUATIONS FOR NUMERICAL PREDICTION

In this paper,two formulation theorems of time-difference fidelity schemes for generalquadratic and cubic physical conservation laws are respectively constructed and proved,with earliermajor conserving time-discretized schemes given as special cases.These two theorems can providenew mathematical basis for solving basic formulation problems of more types of conservative time-discrete fidelity schemes,and even for formulating conservative temporal-spatial discrete fidelityschemes by combining existing instantly conserving space-discretized schemes.Besides.the twotheorems can also solve two large categories of problems about linear and nonlinear computationalinstability.The traditional global spectral-vertical finite-difference semi-implicit model for baroclinicprimitive equations is currently used in many countries in the world for operational weatherforecast and numerical simulations of general circulation.The present work,however,based onTheorem 2 formulated in this paper,develops and realizes a high-order total energy conservingsemi-implicit time-difference fidelity scheme for global spectral-vertical finite-difference model ofbaroclinic primitive equations.Prior to this,such a basic formulation problem remains unsolved forlong,whether in terms of theory or practice.The total energy conserving semi-implicit schemeformulated here is applicable to real data long-term numerical integration.The experiment of thirteen FGGE data 30-day numerical integration indicates that the newtype of total energy conserving semi-implicit fidelity scheme can surely modify the systematicdeviation of energy and mass conserving of the traditional scheme.It should be particularly notedthat,under the experiment conditions of the present work,the systematic errors induced by theviolation of physical laws of conservation in the time-discretized process regarding the traditionalscheme designs(called type Z errors for short)can contribute up to one-third of the totalsystematic root-mean-square(RMS)error at the end of second week of the integration and exceedone half of the total amount four weeks afterwards.In contrast,by realizing a total energyconserving semi-implicit fidelity scheme and thereby eliminating corresponding type Z errors,roughly an average of one-fourth of the RMS errors in the traditional forecast cases can be reducedat the end of second week of the integration,and averagely more than one-third reduced at integraltime of four weeks afterwards.In addition,experiment results also reveal that,in a sense,theeffects of type Z errors are no less great than that of the real topographic forcing of the model.The prospects of the new type of total energy conserving fidelity schemes are very encouraging.     

WRF单柱模式中单参数方法对热带对流模拟能力的影响

利用耦合Milbrandt 2-mon(MY)双参数微物理方案的WRF中的单柱模式,对TWP-ICE试验(Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment)期间的个例进行数值模拟和敏感性试验。通过与观测资料和云分辨率模式的模拟结果进行对比发现:MY方案默认的双参数版本和单参数版本均能够再现TWP-ICE期间的热带云系的总体宏观和微观特征。MY方案的双参数版本模拟的降水率的演变特征同观测十分吻合,冰相粒子的微观特征同观测事实较为一致。单参数默认版本的降水率、液态云的构成及冰相粒子微观特征方面同观测事实存在明显差距。然而实际业务应用中单参数方案由于计算量较小应用更为广泛,但模拟效果有待改善。为了使方案保持计算量较为合理的同时具有较好的模拟效果,参考双参数控制试验中的冰相物质的微观特征,尝试对单参数方案中冰相粒子的单参数方法进行改进。冰晶单参数改进试验中虽然对于冰晶数浓度采用两种不同的处理方法,但模拟效果均未明显改善。其中冰云总含量更加接近观测,且冰云构成发生显著变化,主要归因于冰晶有效半径的减小间接削弱了雪和霰的发展。云滴含量的异常增强导致液态水含量比观测偏高约一个量级,暖云异常增厚则与上升运动的增强直接相关。雨水含量明显增强及雨滴有效半径减小综合导致了降水率仅有微弱改善。雪的单参数改进试验中,雪的截距值增加及环境场过饱和条件改善促进了冰云的发展。通过适当调整雪的截距的经验诊断公式,雪的截距、液态水含量以及降水率均得到较好的改善;而指定雪截距为常数的处理方式使液态云更为偏厚,降水率演变细节同观测仍然差异显著。改进试验结果表明,单参数方案中采用适当的经验公式诊断雪的截距的处理方法对改善单参数方案的模拟能力具有一定的可行性。     

土壤中水热运动耦合方程预报模型研究

在土壤中热运动耦合方程模拟模型的基础上，对作物根系吸水函数进行改进，提出一个仅与降水、作物发育期和叶面积有关的新的根吸水函数表达式，从而建立土壤水分的预报模型。模型只需输入气象变量、土壤温度、土壤水文学参量及作物发育期等常规资料，即可对冬小麦田土壤水分状况进行预报，预报值与实测值的平均最大相对误差在8％以内。     

初冬青藏高原冻土过程的数值模拟

利用改进了的加进NCAR陆面过程(LSM)的NCAR MM5大气模式中的土壤冻融过程参数化方案和2001年10月2～30日的NCEP再分析资料,对青藏铁路沿线区域进行数值模拟试验。在新方案中改进了土壤径流和土壤渗透影响土壤层的水文过程,增加了对土壤含冰量的求解,较真实地反映了土壤的冻融过程。模拟结果表明,改进土壤冻融过程方案后,模式对地温、地面通量的模拟有一定的改进,能够反映土壤冻结初期陆面要素场的变化。     

CAMS复杂云微物理方案与GRAPES模式耦合的数值试验

CAMS复杂云微物理方案是混合相双参数方案, 包括11个云物理变量和31个云物理过程, 能够同时预报水成物的比质量和数浓度。通过在GRAPES非静力中尺度模式中增加预报量并修改相关程序后, 实现了二者的耦合, 耦合后模式运行稳定。选取2005年8月15—17日我国华北地区一次暴雨过程, 利用耦合后的模式进行48 h模拟试验, 同时还选取了GRAPES模式中其他3个比较复杂的微物理方案进行模拟, 着重分析了降水和水成物分布的模拟结果。研究结果表明: CAMS方案能够模拟出与实测相接近的雨带分布特征, 并且对降水演变的模拟结果与其他方案比较一致, 对暴雨中心位置的模拟有待改进。CAMS方案模拟的水成物垂直分布与其他方案相比具有相似的总体特征, 各相态粒子的量级和分布合理, 不同方案的结果在量值上有所差别。个例分析结果显示出CAMS方案对降水和水成物的分布能够合理描述。今后应通过更多个例进行更为精细的模拟试验, 对新方案进行检验。