Free-Swell and Swelling Pressure of Unsaturated Compacted Clays; Experiments and Neural Networks Modeling

Expansive soils have received attentions of several investigators in the past half of century in the problematic soils context. Volume change behavior of unsaturated compacted soils in presence of water and change of degree of saturation was observed in two form of heave or collapse. Low water content and low density compacted soils in presence of enough surcharge pressure lose stability and collapse, because of their metastable and susceptible structure to change of degree of saturation. Free-swell and swelling pressure of five compacted clays, covering low to high plastic clays have been investigated in respect to compaction states and swelling pressure was compared with collapse pressure threshold. The results of experiments were utilized in two Artificial Neural Networks to predict free-swell percent and swelling pressure of a soil sample based on index properties and compaction state.     

Behavior of expansive soils stabilized with fly ash

Expansive soils cause serious problem in the civil engineering practice due to swell and shrinkage upon wetting and drying. Disposal of fly ash, which is an industrial waste in both cost-effective and environment-friendly way receives high attention in China. In this study, the potential use and the effectiveness of expansive soils stabilization using fly ash and fly ash-lime as admixtures are evaluated. The test results show that the plasticity index, activity, free swell, swell potential, swelling pressure, and axial shrinkage percent decreased with an increase in fly ash or fly ash-lime content. With the increase of the curing time for the treated soil, the swell potential and swelling pressure decreased. Soils immediately treated with fly ash show no significant change in the unconfined compressive strength. However, after 7 days curing of the fly ash treated soils, the unconfined compressive strength increased significantly. The relationship between the plasticity index and swell-shrinkage properties for pre-treated and post-treated soils is discussed.     

膨胀土的电导率与膨胀性的关系研究

膨胀土是一种高塑性、强亲水的黏性土。由于黏土矿物含量较高,膨胀土颗粒的交换阳离子含量也较高,总比表面积较大,在电导率测试指标上反映是膨胀土的导电性随膨胀性的增大而增强。选取强、中、弱3种不同膨胀等级的代表性试样,采用无电极电阻率测定仪和便携式电导率探头,测试了膨胀土泥浆和孔隙水溶液电导率测试,采用原子吸收光谱仪检测了膨胀土孔隙水溶液中的离子种类、含量等。研究表明,膨胀土孔隙水溶液的导电性与膨胀土泥浆的导电性均随膨胀性增大而增大,膨胀土的电导率和自由膨胀率具有良好的线性关系,工程中可以利用这一原理进行膨胀土的快速判别。     

南阳膨胀土的工程地质特征和填筑适宜性

施工阶段的工程地质调查发现,宁（南京）西（西安）铁路内乡-镇平段南阳膨胀土成因类型上不仅有第四系冲积洪积粘土,而且发育上第三系湖相沉积粘土。不同成因的膨胀土具有不同的空间分布特征和工程性质,X射线衍射测试表明,南阳膨胀土的主要膨胀性粘土矿物是伊利石/蒙脱石混层矿物。物质组成和物理化学性质差异导致击实土在含水量变化条件下膨胀力和膨胀变形有明显的差别;对同一种膨胀土材料,其击实含水量越小,膨胀性越强,甚至含水量降低1 %～2 %,膨胀力就可以增加到200 %以上;击实膨胀土的直剪强度受到钙质结核含量的影响,对于膨胀势为高或强的膨胀土,结核含量小于15 % 时,经过干湿循环后直剪强度衰减量为40 %～65 %,结核含量为25 %～30 % 的强膨胀土直剪强度衰减量则低于30 %;对膨胀土的地质特征、工程性质、击实土的膨胀性和直剪试验结果进行分析,探讨其用于填筑铁路路基的适宜性,进行了填筑适宜性分级。依据研究成果制定的路基施工工艺取得了比较理想的工程效果     

Efficacy of Cement-stabilized Fly Ash Cushion in Arresting Heave of Expansive Soils

Expansive clays swell and shrink seasonally when subjected to changes in the moisture regime causing substantial distress to the structures built in them. Techniques like sand cushion and cohesive non-swelling soil (CNS) layer have been tried to arrest heave and consequent damages to structures. Sand cushion has been proved to be counter-productive. Studies have indicated that even though CNS layer was effective initially, it became less effective after the first cycle of swelling and shrinkage. Research carried out by the authors, using cement-stabilized fly ash as a cushioning material, has shown that it was quite effective in arresting heave. Fly ash cushion, stabilized with 10% cement with thickness equal to that of the expansive soil bed reduces heave by about 75% in the first instance. With subsequent swell-shrink cycles, the performance further improves, unlike in the case of a black cotton soil provided with a CNS cushion. At the end of fourth cycle of swelling, the reduction in the amount of heave is as high as 99.1%.     

膨胀土路堤的化学改性试验研究

膨胀土是一种具有特殊工程性质的土,它对土木工程有着巨大的影响和危害。本文针对公路膨胀土路堤填料改良提出的PAS化学改性剂包边处理新方法,对其改性原理及其特殊的施工工艺做了详细介绍,并通过多项试验研究了改良前后膨胀土胀缩性、强度特性等方面的变化。研究表明,PAS生态改性处理膨胀土是一种有效的方法,经处理后的膨胀土胀缩性显著降低,强度和水稳定性得到大幅提高。且PAS不会改变原土壤植被育培能力,改性边坡可以结合植物固坡的方法进行生态防护。PAS改性处理与远距离运土路基填料置换相比,具有很大经济优势,特别是在高塑性膨胀土大量分布的地区,PAS改性剂处理膨胀土路基具有很好的推广价值。     

Reduction of Expansive Index,Swelling and Compression Behavior of Kaolinite and Bentonite Clay with Sand and Class C Fly Ash

Swelling behavior of expansive soil has always created problems in the field of geotechnical engineering. Generally, the method used to assess the swelling potential of expansive soil from its plasticity index, shrinkage limit and colloidal content. Alternative way to evaluate swelling behavior is from its expansive index (EI) and swelling pressure value. The present study investigates the reduction of EI and swelling pressure for kaolinite and bentonite clay when mixed with various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash used were 0–50 % by weight. The results show that there is a significant reduction in the swelling properties of expansive soil with the addition of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. The reduction in EI ranged approximately from 10 to 50 and 4 to 49 % for kaolinite and bentonite clay, respectively. Also the maximum swelling pressure of kaolinite and bentonite clay decreased approximately 93 and 64 %, respectively with the addition of various percentages of Ottawa sand and Class C fly ash. Standard index properties test viz., liquid limit, plastic limit and linear shrinkage test were conducted to see the characteristics of expansive soil when mixed with less expansive sand and fly ash. Also, for these expansive soils one dimensional consolidation test have been conducted with sand and fly ash mixtures and the results were compared with pure kaolinite and bentonite clay.     

Swelling behaviour of expansive soil treated with fly ash–GGBS based binder

In this article, the potential of a binder developed by admixing fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) to stabilise expansive soils is evaluated. Laboratory tests included determination of free swell index, swell potential and swelling pressure tests of the soil/binder mixtures at different mixing ratio. The test results showed decrease in the swelling behaviour of the soil with increase in binder content. The percent swell–time relationship was observed to fit the hyperbolic curves enabling us to predict the ultimate percent swell from few initial test results. Addition of 1% of lime to the binder showed further improvement in reducing swelling. A good linear relationship is established between percent oedometer swell and modified free swell index (MFSI) for soil/binder mixtures without lime but the same has not been observed in the presence of lime. The compressibility characteristics of the soil/binder mixtures reduced nominally with increase in binder content but in the presence of lime, the compressibility reduced significantly. Binder used in this study has been found to be effective and economic to stabilise expansive soils with lesser amount of chemical additives such as lime.     

Determination of Swelling and Shrinkage Properties of Undisturbed Expansive Soils

Expansive soils exhibit large volume changes when their water content changes. Alternate heave and settlement due to seasonal climatic variations result in distress and damage in civil infrastructure systems. This research focuses on the understanding of swelling and shrinkage phenomenon in the surface layer of expansive soils. Undisturbed field samples were used to capture the effect of in situ conditions (geologically induced fissuring and environmentally caused saturation) on volume change properties of Regina clay. Based on laboratory investigations, the swelling potential and swelling pressure of the native clay at S = 82% were found to be 1.5% and 3.5 kPa, respectively. The swell-shrink path during progressive soil drying followed an S-shaped curve comprising of an initial low structural shrinkage followed by a sharp decline during normal shrinkage and then by a low decrease during residual shrinkage. The soil microstructure correlated well with the observed volume change behaviour as well as with the consistency limits. The presence of fissures in field samples at various degrees of saturation confirmed that the investigated deposit is at an equilibrium condition with respect to the swell-shrink phenomenon. The swelling properties at any initial saturation state were estimated using the free swelling test and the swell-shrink test data in conjunction. The swelling potential increased 12 times (from 2 to 24%) and the swelling pressure increased by two orders of magnitude (from 27 to 2500 kPa) with a change in the degree of saturation from 80% (at the plastic limit) to 60% (at the shrinkage limit).     

Effect of lime and fly ash on swell,consolidation and shear strength characteristics of expansive clays: a comparative study

Expansive soils swell on absorbing water and shrink on evaporation thereof. Because of this alternate swelling and shrinkage, civil engineering structures founded in them are severely damaged. For counteracting the problems of expansive soils, different innovative techniques were suggested. Stabilization of expansive clays with various additives has also met with considerable success. This paper presents, by comparison, the effect of lime and fly ash on free swell index (FSI), swell potential, swelling pressure, coefficient of consolidation, compression index, secondary consolidation characteristics and shear strength. Lime content (weight of lime/weight of dry soil) was varied as 0%, 2%, 4%?and 6%?and fly ash content (weight of fly ash/weight of dry soil) as 0%, 10%?and 20%. A fly ash content of 20%?showed significant reduction in swell potential, swelling pressure, compression index and secondary consolidation characteristics and resulted in increase in maximum dry density and shear strength. Swell potential and swelling pressure decreased with increase in lime content also. Further, consolidation characteristics improved. Compaction characteristics and unconfined compression strength improved at 4%?lime and reduced at 6%?lime.     

基于收缩试验的膨胀土地基变形预测方法

进行膨胀土的三相收缩试验,确定了广西膨胀土的体积收缩指数。对依托工程膨胀土进行了现场静力触探试验,根据比贯入阻力随深度的变化曲线特征,确定了膨胀土活动区深度,给出了膨胀土裂隙开展深度的理论解,膨胀土裂隙开展深度的计算值与静力触探试验确定的膨胀土活动区深度和现场观测的裂隙开展深度基本一致。最后介绍了基于三相收缩试验基础上的膨胀土地基变形计算方法,并在试验基础上给出了膨胀土地基变形计算模式和计算结果。以膨胀土地基变形量作为膨胀土地基的分类指标,对膨胀土地基进行了分类,对膨胀土基础选型具有重要意义。     

Swell-compressibility characteristics of lime-blended and cement-blended expansive clays – A comparative study

Chemical stabilisation of expansive soils has been quite efficacious in reducing swelling characteristics, namely, swell potential (S%) and swelling pressure (p_s). When chemicals such as lime and cement are added to an expansive clay, flocculation and cementation take place. Flocculation, which is an immediate reaction, is instrumental in reducing plasticity and swell potential significantly. It also reduces the time required for equilibrium heave. This paper presents experimental data on lime-blended and cement-blended expansive clay specimens. Free swell index (FSI), heave, rate of heave and swelling pressure were studied. FSI, heave and rate of heave decreased with increasing lime content and cement content in the blends. But, during a 3-day inundation (a period, generally allowed for the sample to attain to equilibrium heave), cementitious products developed and resisted the applied compressive loads stiffly, resulting in high swelling pressures in the case of lime-blended specimens. Swelling pressure could not be determined in the case of cement-blended specimens. Hence, short inundation tests (inundating the specimens only for 15 minutes) were performed. But, even from these tests, swelling pressure could not be determined for cement-blended specimens. This indicated the development of strong cementitious products in them. It was interesting to find that, in both long and short duration, the lime- and cement-blended specimens attained to equilibrium heave in the same time period. FSI decreased from 185% to 63.63% when lime content was increased from 0% to 4%, and from 185% to 110% when cement content was increased from 0% to 20%. Swell potential reduced by 42.5% at 4% lime and by 46.4% at 20% cement. Swelling pressure increased from 210 kPa to 320 kPa when lime content was increased from 0% to 4%. Linear shrinkage of the specimens also decreased with increasing additive content.     

Soil Stabilization by Chemical Agent

Soil treatment is commonly resorted in order to improve the strength, stiffness properties of road foundations, and reduce the swelling potential of expansive soils. In Jordan, considerable amount of construction activity is carried out at relatively shallow depths where soil is likely to be unsaturated and subjected to low stresses level. Road damage is frequently observed when it is founded on weak sub-grade in Karak. Therefore, chemical stabilization of the base course, sub base course and sub-grade is essential. The soil will be treated by using sodium silicate and lime with different percentages. An experimental program was designed to study the behavior of soil as the percent of additive agent changes. The results showed that; the geotechnical properties have been improved when soil is treated by mixing lime and sodium silicate. The initial consumption of lime is of 4 and 2?% for sodium silicate. The reaction time is a significant parameter where strength improves as time increases.     

Compressibility and swelling characteristics of Al-Khobar Palygorskite, eastern Saudi Arabia

Expansive soils are found in different locations in eastern Saudi Arabia. The area is arid with high temperatures, highly variable humidity and an excessive rate of evaporation compared to the low precipitation. This resulted in the formation of water sensitive soils. In the present investigation, line valve buildings for a sweet water feeder (1118 mm in diameter) were constructed on a highly expansive material consisting mainly of brown palygorskite and gray palygorskite with thin sheets of gypsum and limestone. Block samples from both palygorskites were brought to the laboratory and cores as well as remolded samples were obtained from the blocks. The two palygorskites were found to be highly plastic and have a very high swelling potential. The liquid limit (LL) and plastic limit (PL) values for the brown palygorskite are 261% and 140%, respectively. The gray palygorskite has a LL of a 285% and a PL of 123%. The oedometer free swell tests for the two palygorskites produced an expansion ranging between 31.8% and 42.5% for the remolded samples. However, the expansion for cores ranges between 8.3% and 19.3%. The constant volume pressure tests produced a stress in excess of 4240 kPa. The swell potential reached a steady state after four days while the swelling pressure reached a steady state in about 3 h. The paper addresses the geology of the area, the characterization of the geomaterial including mineralogical composition using X-ray diffraction and SEM techniques and the swelling characteristics of the material.     

粉煤灰改良膨胀土试验研究

研究掺粉煤灰对合肥膨胀土的物理性质指标以及胀缩性指标等的影响,探讨利用粉煤灰改良膨胀土的措施与效果。试验研究结果表明,在膨胀土中掺入适量的粉煤灰可有效降低膨胀土的塑性指数、降低膨胀势、减小线缩率与降低活性。在膨胀土中掺入粉煤灰还可改变膨胀土的击实特性,一定击实功作用下,随着掺灰率的增加,土体的最优含水率与最大干密度均减小,膨胀土中掺入粉煤灰后,膨胀土可在较小的含水率下通过击实或压实达到稳定。掺灰膨胀土的膨胀量与膨胀力随养护龄期的增长而减小;没有经过养护的掺灰土,其无侧限抗压强度随掺灰率的变化几乎没有变化,经过7 d养护后,土的无侧限抗压强度有所增长,并且存在一个峰值点,合肥膨胀土的无侧限抗压强度所对应的最佳掺粉煤灰率约为15 %～20 %。     

Coupled consolidation model for negative skin friction on piles in clay layers

Expansive soils swell on absorbing water and shrink on evaporation thereof. Because of this alternate swelling and shrinkage, civil engineering structures founded in them are severely damaged. For counteracting the problems of expansive soils, different innovative techniques were suggested. Stabilization of expansive clays with various additives has also met with considerable success. This paper presents, by comparison, the effect of lime and fly ash on free swell index (FSI), swell potential, swelling pressure, coefficient of consolidation, compression index, secondary consolidation characteristics and shear strength. Lime content was varied as 0%, 2%, 4%?and 6%?and fly ash content as 0%, 10%?and 20%. A fly ash content of 20%?showed significant reduction in swell potential, swelling pressure, compression index and secondary consolidation characteristics and resulted in increase in maximum dry density and shear strength. Swell potential and swelling pressure decreased with increase in lime content also. Further, consolidation characteristics improved. Compaction characteristics and unconfined compression strength improved at 4%?lime and reduced at 6%?lime.     

Assessment of Ornamental Stone Waste as Expansive Soil Stabilizer

This work aims to assessment of the calcitic ornamental stone waste for the stabilization of expansive soil. Calcitic rock-derived waste together with different expansive soils from Egypt were characterized and processed for stabilizer optimization. The mineral, chemical and engineering characteristics of the waste and the soil samples were examined using XRD, DTA, TGA, SEM, XRF as well as geotechnical characteristics such as liquid, plastic and shrinkage limits, plasticity index, free swelling, and uni-axial compressive strength, respectively. The calcitic waste has been calcined in an electrical muffle furnace at 1000℃ for 1 hour. The samples were treated by 0–8% waste post calcination for soaking time1– 4 weeks.     

Swelling behaviour of GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds subjected to swell-shrink cycles

Granular pile-anchor (GPA) technique has been found to be an innovative foundation technique for expansive clays posing the dual problem of swelling and shrinkage. Swelling occurs during absorption of water and shrinkage during evaporation of water. Generally, in field expansive clay beds, swelling takes place during rainy seasons and shrinkage during summers. GPA is a recent innovative foundation technique devised to ameliorate the dual swell-shrink problem of structures founded on expansive clay beds. The other innovative techniques are drilled piers, belled piers and under-reamed piles. Laboratory scale model studies and field scale experiments on GPAs yielded useful results and revealed that swelling of expansive clay beds was effectively controlled by GPA technique. Studies on swell-shrink behaviour of GPA-reinforced clay beds have not been performed so far. This paper presents results obtained from laboratory scale model studies on GPA-reinforced expansive clay beds subjected to alternate cycles of swelling and shrinkage. The data presented in this paper pertain to the swelling of test clay beds under the influence of three swell-shrink cycles (N) spanning a time period of 300 days. The test clay beds were reinforced with varying number of GPAs (n = 0, 1, 2 and 3). Heave (mm) in a given swell-shrink cycle decreased with increasing number of GPAs. Further, for a given number of GPAs (n), heave (mm) also decreased with increase in depth from the top of the clay bed. It was found that the resultant thickness of the clay bed (H_r) for swelling increased with increasing number of cycles. However, the percentage heave (ΔH/H_r) decreased as the number of swell-shrink cycles (N) increased.     

Geological and engineering characteristics of expansive soils and rocks in northern Oman

The geology and former climate of northern Oman favoured the formation of smectite clay minerals in certain materials which are implicated in ground heave problems. Investigations have shown that the smectite content of these expansive materials was developed in Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene times. No evidence of a significant content of smectite was found in pre Eocene strata or in Quaternary strata, except for Desert Fill. It is shown that the main types of expansive materials in northern Oman are bentonitic mudstones, marls and silty mudstones, argillaceous dolomitic limestone, altered conglomerates and the desert fill derived from these. These swelling materials exist as impersistent bands within the bedrock Tertiary conglomerates and limestones. A geotechnical testing program was carried out on undisturbed samples from Sultan Qaboos University staff housing areas where building damage had occurred, to evaluate mineralogical composition, cation content and swelling characteristics. The test results characterized these soils/rocks as highly expansive type with Na-smectite as the dominant clay mineral.     

石灰改良膨胀土力学性质的研究

膨胀(?)主要是由强亲水性粘土矿物蒙脱石和伊利石组成的,是具有膨胀性、多裂隙性和超固结性的高塑性粘性土。在铁路施工中,膨胀土不能直接作为路基填土,必需进行改良。通过室内试验的方法来讨论石灰改良膨胀土的力学性质在各种影响因素下的变化规律。