Hybrid Method to Identify Second-trip Echoes Using Phase Modulation and Polarimetric Technology

For pulse Doppler radars,the widely used method for identifying second-trip echoes(STs)in the signal processing level yields significant misidentification in regions of high turbulence and severe wind shear.In the data processing level,although the novel algorithm for ST identification does not yield significant misidentification in specific regions,its overall identification performance is not ideal.Therefore,this paper proposes a hybrid method for the identification of STs using phase modulation(signal processing)and polarimetric technology(data processing).Through this approach,most of the STs are removed,whereas most of the first-trip echoes(FTs)remain untouched.Compared with the existing method using a signal quality index filter with an optimized threshold,the hybrid method exhibits superior performance(Heidke skill scores of 0.98 versus 0.88)on independent test datasets,especially in high-turbulence and severe-wind-shear regions,for which misidentification is significantly reduced.     

A Refinement of the McMillen (1988) Recursive Digital Filter for the Analysis of Atmospheric Turbulence

We present a refinement of the recursive digital filter proposed by McMillen (Boundary-Layer Meteorol 43:231–245, 1988), for separating surface-layer turbulence from low-frequency fluctuations affecting the mean flow, especially over complex terrain. In fact, a straightforward application of the filter causes both an amplitude attenuation and a forward phase shift in the filtered signal. As a consequence turbulence fluctuations, evaluated as the difference between the original series and the filtered one, as well as higher-order moments calculated from them, may be affected by serious inaccuracies. The new algorithm (i) produces a rigorous zero-phase filter, (ii) restores the amplitude of the low-frequency signal, and (iii) corrects all filter-induced signal distortions.     

An attempt to deconstruct the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation

The link between the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO) and low-frequency changes of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is investigated in three historical and five control simulations with different climate models. An AMOC intensification is followed by a positive AMO phase in each case, but the time lag and the strength of the AMO–AMOC link depend on the model and the type of simulation. In historical simulations, the link is sensitive to the method used to remove the influence of external and anthropogenic forcing from the sea surface temperature (SST) before defining the AMO. Subtracting the regression onto the global mean SST leads to better correlations between the AMO and the AMOC than linear or quadratic detrending, or removing the global mean SST, but a dynamical filter based on linear inverse modeling (LIM) yields even slightly higher correlations. The LIM filter, which decomposes the SST field into non-orthogonal normal modes that may have a physical interpretation, allows investigating whether removing Pacific links from SST improves the AMOC–AMO correlation. In several cases, there is a small improvement when removing the links to the El Niño Southern Oscillation, but the correlation becomes weaker in one historical simulation, so no firm conclusion can be drawn. Additionally removing the modes associated with the Pacific decadal variability strongly degrades the representation of AMOC changes by the AMO in one model, and it tends to reduce the AMOC–AMO correlation in most others, reflecting the strong relation between the Pacific and the Atlantic at decadal scales. The LIM-based filter is finally applied to observed SSTs, confirming that the AMO amplitude is smaller and its recent positive phase weaker than when the global effects are represented by a linear trend. When the global signal is removed, the observed AMO leads the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, but does not significantly lag it, as suggested earlier, stressing the need to carefully remove global changes when investigating low-frequency interbasin connections.     

Wave-Modified Flux and Plume Dispersion in the Stable Boundary Layer

The effects of a pressure jump and a following internal gravity wave on turbulence and plume diffusion in the stable planetary boundary layer are examined. The pressure jump was accompanied by a sudden increase in turbulence and plume dispersion. The effects of wave perturbations on turbulence statistics are analysed by calculating fluxes and variances with and without the wave signal for averaging times ranging from 1 to 30 min. The wave signals are obtained using a band-pass filter. It is shown that second-order turbulence quantities calculated without first subtracting the wave perturbations from the time are greater than those calculated when the wave signal is separated from the turbulence. Estimates of the vertical dispersion of an elevated tracer plume in the stable boundary layer are made using an elastic backscatter lidar. Plume dispersion observed 25 m downwind of the source increases rapidly with the arrival of the flow disturbances. Measured plume dispersion and plume centreline height correlate with the standard deviation of the vertical velocity but not with the wave signal.     

黄土高原半干旱区异常能量闭合率特征分析

以兰州大学半干旱气候与环境观测站（简称SACOL站）4 a的陆面通量数据为基础,利用普通最小二乘法（OLS）和能量平衡比率（EBR）方法,对能量平衡的异常闭合特征及其与相对垂直湍强（RIw）的关系进行了研究,并进行了能量滞后分析。结果表明,能量过闭合和负闭合现象分别主要发生在白天和夜间,大小遵从正态分布;较大异常闭合产生的原因主要是日出日落时净辐射与地表热通量接近以及降水影响造成湍流通量出现异常大值。一般来说,垂直湍流运动越强,异常闭合越少,闭合度越向1收敛,反之亦然。强湍流或极弱湍流都不利于产生异常闭合,过闭合、负闭合的最适相对垂直湍强RIw约为0.11、0.14。另外,能量支出项的相对滞后也是造成包括负闭合在内的异常闭合的原因之一。剔除湍强较弱的点或将地表热通量G0、感热H、潜热LE相位相对净辐射Rn提前30 min后,异常闭合所占比重减少;月平均EBR法过闭合度降低,OLS法闭合度提高。     

A Prediction System for Local Wind Variations in Mountainous Terrain

A three-level model system for the prediction of local flows in mountainous terrain is described. The system is based upon an operational weather prediction model with a horizontal grid spacing of about 10 km. The large-scale flow is transformed to a more detailed terrain, first by a mesoscale model with grid spacing of about 1 km, and then by a local-scale model with a grid spacing of about 0.2 km. The weather prediction model is hydrostatic, while the two other models are non-hydrostatic. As a case study the model system has been applied to estimate wind and turbulence over Várnes airport, Norway, where data on turbulent flight conditions were provided near the runway. The actual case was chosen due to previous experiences, which indicate that south-easterly winds may cause severe turbulence in a region close to the airport. Local terrain induced turbulence seems to be the main reason for these effects. The predicted local flow in the actual region is characterized by narrow secondary vortices along the flow, and large turbulent intensity associated with these vortices. A similar pattern is indicated by the sparse observations, although there seems to be a difference in mean wind direction between data and predictions. Due to fairly coarse data for sea surface temperature, errors could be induced in the turbulence damping via the Richardson number. An adjustment for this data problem improved the predictions.     

Linear Time-Invariant Compensation of Cup Anemometer and Vane Inertia

We propose a method to compensate for the phase lag and the amplitudeattenuation in the cup anemometer signal. These two effects, caused by theinstrument's inertia, are the major flaws of the cup anemometer in additionto over-speeding. Since the instrument's response is invariant in wavenumber (not frequency) representation, we transform the signals to becompensated from the time domain to the spatial domain by using Taylor'shypothesis. In the spatial domain we apply a linear time-invariant filterto eliminate the phase lag and the amplitude attenuation. The proposedprocedure improves instrument performance down to spatial scales equal toor smaller than the distance constant of the anemometer. The method for cupanemometer compensation is presented in detail and later adapted for vanes.     

一种抑制降水对风廓线雷达水平风干扰的方法

降水条件下,风廓线雷达 (wind profiler radar,WPR) 能够同时接收到大气湍流回波和降水粒子的散射回波,降水信号谱与湍流信号谱叠加在一起。风廓线雷达计算水平风时,若采用叠加在一起的功率谱处理降水条件下的探测数据,必将导致后期水平风的合成严重失真。该文首先对原始功率谱数据进行插值和平滑处理,通过功率谱曲线极大值点的个数判断其是否受到降水影响。对于受到降水影响的功率谱,依据湍流谱和降水谱均趋于对称型的特点,用两种方法分别对不同特征的功率谱曲线进行湍流谱和降水谱的分离处理,继而利用分离出的湍流谱信号反演水平风场。研究选取广东省湛江站风廓线雷达2013年6月及7月两次实测降水过程,分析结果表明:用湍流谱代替原始功率谱反演的风场,一致性较处理前有明显提高,从而证明了该分离方法的可行性。     

The effect of idealized water waves on the turbulence structure and kinetic energy budgets in the overlying airflow

The influence of an idealized moving wavy surface on the overlying airflow is investigated using direct numerical simulations (DNS). In the present simulations, the bulk Reynolds number is Re = 8000 (; where U₀ is the forcing velocity of the flow, h the height of the domain and v the kinematic viscosity) and the phase speed of the imposed waves relative to the friction velocity, i.e., the wave age varies from very slow to fast waves. The wave signal is clearly present in the airflow up to at least 0.15λ (where λ is the wave length) and is present up to higher levels for faster waves. In the kinetic energy budgets, pressure transport is mainly of importance for slow waves. For fast waves, viscous transport and turbulent transport dominate near the surface. Kinetic energy budgets for the wave and turbulent perturbations show a non-negligible transport of turbulent kinetic energy directed from turbulence to the wave perturbation in the airflow. The wave-turbulent energy transport depends on the size, tilt, and phase of the wave-induced part of the turbulent Reynolds stresses.According to the DNS data, slow waves are more efficient in generating isotropic turbulence than fast waves.Despite the differences in wave-shape as well as in Reynolds number between the idealized direct numerical simulations and the atmosphere, there are intriguing similarities in the turbulence structure. Important information about the turbulence above waves in the atmosphere can be obtained from DNS—the data must, however, be interpreted with care.     

Wave and turbulence structure in a disturbed nocturnal inversion

Acoustic sounder and tower data obtained at the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory (BAO) are used to examine several features of the wave and turbulence structure associated with a disturbed nocturnal inversion. General features, including mean fields and Richardson number, for the case selected for this study are presented. Spectral analysis of the tower data reveals a separation of energy into wavelike and turbulent fluctuations. Analysis of the heat flux, however, shows upward counter-gradient fluxes in the vicinity of a low-level jet and near the top of the inversion. Cospectral analysis shows that the major contribution to the upward heat flux occurs at frequencies that would normally be considered characteristic of waves. In some cases, the upward flux is associated with a phase shift between vertical velocity w and fluctuating temperature θ different from the quadrature relation that would be expected of internal waves. Time series analysis reveals that these unexpected positive fluxes occur in relatively short bursts. Analysis of time series of θ and w in other cases, as well as inspection of acoustic sounder records, shows that sometimes such upward fluxes can result from a combination of wave motion and horizontal temperature advection. In this case the advection is associated with a shallow cold front.     

雾霾天气下DAML空间相干光通信系统的研究

大气湍流引起的折射率起伏会导致光信号的振幅和相位发生随机波动,同时日益严重的城市雾霾现象带来的系统性能降低问题也不可忽视.基于湍流相位波动和激光器相位噪声的缓慢时变特性,本文提出了将DAML相位估计算法应用到空间相干光通信系统中来提高系统性能,并推导了在大气湍流、激光器相位噪声以及各种天气状况衰减效应影响下,针对DQPSK信号的DAML相位估计系统的误码率,最后重点分析了在雾、霾天气条件下该系统的传输距离限制和波长选择特性.仿真结果表明：湍流相位波动造成的信噪比损失低于0.1 dB;在雾和霾天气下,相较于传统的OOK IM／DD FSO通信系统,DAML相位估计系统在不同的大气湍流环境中至少有500 m的传输距离优势;在霾和薄雾天气,传输波长为1 550 nm的DAML系统比波长为850 nm的系统的性能更优,但在能见度低于200 m的浓雾天气,系统性能基本与波长选择无关.     

Relationships Between QBO in the Lower Equatorial Stratospheric Zonal Winds and East African Seasonal Rainfall

Summary Teleconnections between the seasonal rainfall anomalies of March through May (“long-rains”) over eastern Africa (Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) and the lower equatorial stratospheric (30-mb) zonal winds for the 32-year period 1964–1995 are examined using statistical methods. The analysis is based on the application of the simple correlation method and QBO/rainfall composite analysis. A statistical study of spatial correlation patterns is made in an effort to understand the climatic associations between the equatorial stratospheric zonal wind and regional rainfall at the interannual scale. The aim of this analysis is to establish whether this global signal can be employed as predictor variable in the long-range forecasts. The study is part of an ongoing investigation, which aims at designing a comprehensive and objective, multi-variate-forecast system of seasonal rainfall over eastern Africa. The correlation parameters include simultaneous (zero lag), and the non-zero lag correlations. The statistical significance of the correlation coefficient [r] is tested based on the Monte Carlo t-statistical method, and the standard correlation tables. Our results indicate significant positive simultaneous and non-zero lag correlations between rainfall over parts of East Africa and lower equatorial stratospheric zonal wind during the months of March–May and June–August. Significantly high correlations are concentrated over the western regions of eastern Africa with peak values of (+ 0.8) observed over these areas. These associations have been observed to be more prominent during lag than in the simultaneous correlations. Strong month to month lag coherence is observed after June prior to the onset of the March to May seasonal rainfall and persists for more than 4 months. Correlation indices for the eight homogeneous rainfall regions over eastern Africa which are derived from our Empirical Orthogonal Function/Cluster analysis shows a clear annual cycle with significant relationships between QBO and seasonal rainfall occurring during boreal summer (June–August). The season with the weakest relationship is December–February. It is however, noted that although the coherence between QBO-Index and rainfall during the long-rains is significantly high, there are some wet/dry years for which the relationship between the long rains and the lower equatorial zonal wind are not significant (for example in 1966, 1973 and 1983). These years have been associated with strong and prolonged ENSO events. Preliminary comparison of the QBO-Index and the newly found Indian Ocean dipole mode index (DMI) indicates that the two climate variables may be significantly related. Of the six high dipole mode events in the Indian Ocean that were observed in 1961, 1967, 1972, 1982, 1994 and 1997, all except 1967 coincided with the easterly phase of the QBO-Index and below normal rainfall over western highlands of eastern Africa. Contingency analyses indicate 60 percent likelihood for the occurrence of above normal rainfall during the westerly phase of the QBO and 63 percent likelihood of below normal rainfall during the east phase of the QBO. Our correlation analysis results indicate that about 36 percent of the variability of the long-rains season over eastern Africa are associated with the QBO-Index. Our results further show that the tendency of the lower equatorial stratosphe ric zonal wind prior to the season is a good indicator of the performance of the long rains of eastern Africa. A positive OND minus JJA QBO trend is a good indicator for the non-occurrence of drought over eastern Africa. Similarly, a negative trend is a good indicator for the non-occurrence of high rainfall over the region. The identified characteristics and domain of influence of the QBO signal in different regions of East Africa suggests that this global oscillator may offer useful input to objective multi-variate rainfall prediction models for eastern Africa. Received June 4, 1999 Revised November 25, 1999     

A coupled model study on ENSO, MJO and Indian summer monsoon rainfall relationships

Summary In this paper, we have tried to understand the ENSO, MJO and Indian summer monsoon rainfall relationships from observation as well as from coupled model results. It was the general feeling that El-Niño years are the deficient in Indian monsoon rainfall and converse being the case for the La-Niña years. Recent papers by several authors noted the failure of this relationship. We find that the model output does confirm a breakdown of this relationship. In this study we have seen that a statistically defined modified Indian summer monsoon rainfall (MISMR) index, a linearly regressed ISMR index and dynamical Webster index (WBSI), shows an inverse relationship with ENSO index during the entire period of integration (1987 to 1999). It is also seen from this study that the amplification of the MJO signals were large and the ENSO signals were less pronounced during the years of above normal ISMR. The MJO signal amplitudes were small and ENSO signals were strong during the years of deficient ISMR. It has been noted that here is a time lag between the MJO and ENSO signal in terms of their modulation aspect. If time lag is added with the ENSO signal then both signals maintain the amplitude modulation theory. A hypothesis is being proposed here to define a relationship between MJO and ENSO signals for the entire period between 1987 and 1999.Received September 18, 2002; revised November 22, 2002; accepted December 20, 2002 Published online: May 8, 2003     

子波变换在大气科学中的应用研究

子波变换是在80年代初才开始发展起来的崭新的数学分析方法。它适宜于分析研究信号的局部性质。子波变换在地震资料分析、图像处理、声音信号分析、分形、抽样、湍流以及大气和海洋科学的诸多研究领域中得到了广泛的应用，与传统数学方法相比显示出巨大的优越性。本文在简要介绍子波变换的定义和一些基本概念的基础上，结合实例给出子波变换在大气科学中的应用研究。最后，讨论了使用子波变换时应注意的问题并展望了它的应用潜力。     

Toward increasing the accuracy and realism of future optical turbulence calculations

Summary Due to the increased use of laser and ground-to-satellite communications the need for reliable optical turbulence information is growing. Optical turbulence information is important because it describes an atmospheric effect that can degrade the performance of electromagnetic systems and sensors, e.g., free-space optical communications and infrared imaging. However, analysis of selected past research indicates that there are some areas (i.e., data and models) in which optical turbulence information is lacking. For example, line-of-sight optical turbulence data coupled with atmospheric models in hilly terrain, coastal areas, and within cities are few in number or non-existent. In addition, the bulk of existing atmospheric computer models being used to provide estimates of optical turbulence are basically one-dimensional in nature and assume uniform turbulence conditions over large areas. As a result, current optical turbulence theory and models may be deficient and in error for inhomogeneous (nonuniform) turbulence conditions, such as those that occur in urban environments or environments with changing topography and energy budgets. While it is anticipated that theoretical advances in environmental physics (and like disciplines) will be a catalyst for much new work this area, in the interim, we suggest that some very practical computational research can be performed to extend existing low-atmospheric turbulence and micrometeorological calculations beyond current limitations.     

An observational study of instability and turbulence in nighttime drainage winds

A detailed analysis of two nighttime drainage wind events that commenced on the evenings of 7 and 8 October, 1980 is presented. Data on wind velocity and temperature (10-s values), obtained from each of the eight instrumented levels of the Boulder Atmospheric Observatory, are used to construct 10-min means and root-mean-square values of all the variables. Additional information is provided by acoustic sounder data for 8 October.The analyses reveal that the passage of the drainage front occurs abruptly, between two 10-s observations, on both days. Relatively intense root-mean-square variability in the velocity and temperature fields accompanies the passage of the drainage front. In addition, the undercutting cold drainage air initiates significant variability in the vertical velocity field that extends above the 300 m level of the tower. The most significant variability in the other meteorological fields is primarily restricted to the lowest 150 m with the passage of the drainage front.A principal feature of the analysis is the delineation of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and billow development, breakdown into turbulence and ultimate decay to a less turbulent state that occurs intermittently behind the drainage front. These features are interpreted in light of Thorpe's (1973a, b) experimental work on stability and turbulence in stratified shear flow and the predictions of linear instability theory. The interpretations are carried out by considering the distributions of the Richardson number, the peak shears of the mean flow and the vertical fluxes of horizontal momentum associated with the unstable growth of the disturbances. Additional comparisons are made between the turbulent structures in Thorpe's laboratory experiments and the turbulence exhibited in traces of the 10-s vertical velocity data measured at various levels both above and below the interface.The relevance of the present results to the design of future field programs, and to the observational data requirements that should be met to incorporate turbulent entrainment processes in models of pollutant dispersal is discussed.     

Characterizing atmospheric surface layer turbulence using chaotic return map analysis

Nonlinear time series analysis methods are used to investigate the dynamics of mechanical and convective turbulences in the atmospheric surface layer flow. Using dynamical invariant analysis (e.g. correlation dimension, Lyapunov exponent and mutual information) along with recurrence quantification analysis (e.g. recurrent rate, determinism, average diagonal length of recurrence plot, etc.) of the vertical wind component data, it is confirmed that a convective turbulence is a lower order manifold in its phase space exhibiting higher degree of organization than a mechanical turbulence. Applying a quasi-one-dimensional chaotic return map technique, the topological differences between the mechanical and convective turbulences are explored. These quasi-one-dimensional return maps are produced using the local maxima of the first principal component of the reconstructed turbulence data. A comparison of the probability distribution of the local maxima of a forced Lorenz model with the turbulence data indicates the possible existence of a stable fixed point for both type of turbulences. Furthermore, dynamically the mechanical turbulence is found to resemble an unforced Lorenz model whereas the convective turbulence resembles a forced Lorenz model.     

DOMINANT PHYSICAL PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH PHASE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SURFACE RAINFALL AND CONVECTIVE AVAILABLE POTENTIAL ENERGY

A lag correlation analysis is conducted with a 21-day TOGA COARE cloud-resolving model simulation data to identify the phase relation between surface rainfall and convective available potential energy (CAPE) and associated physical processes. The analysis shows that the maximum negative lag correlations between the model domain mean CAPE and rainfall occurs around lag hour 6. The minimum mean CAPE lags mean and convective rainfall through the vapor condensation and depositions, water vapor convergence, and heat divergence whereas it lags stratiform rainfall via the transport of hydrometeor concentration from convective regions to raining stratiform regions, vapor condensation and depositions, water vapor storage, and heat divergence over raining stratiform regions.     

Nonlinear interaction of a zonal jet and barotropic Rossby-wave turbulence: the problem of turbulent friction

Interaction of a zonal jet and small-amplitude Rossby-wave turbulence is studied within the framework of the barotropic β-plane model. It is demonstrated that turbulent-laminar interaction in this case transfers energy from the wave turbulence to the laminar flow (the effect of negative friction). We derive a conclusion that, as the geophysical turbulence is determined partly by wave turbulence and none of the traditional heuristic models can adequately describe the effect of negative friction associated with wave turbulence, the application of these models to the ‘real’ ocean and atmosphere is unreliable.It is also demonstrated that, as they are affected by the turbulence, all westward jets slowly expand without strengthening. Each jet has a core, within the limits of which the velocity of the fluid is constant. In some cases, the core expands faster than the jet periphery, resulting in jumps on the profile of the flow. All eastward jets are steady irrespective of their profiles.